sailboat energy transformation

Yachting Monthly

• Digital edition

Renewable energy afloat: the latest tech

• Sam Fortescue
• May 5, 2021

Sam Fortescue examines how renewable energy afloat is benefitting from technical developments in other sectors

Oceanvolt's electric drives feature a clean display that can tell you exactly how much electricity the system is consuming under power or generating under sail. Credit: Richard Langdon/Ocean Images

As the rest of the world grapples with decarbonisation, the sailing community is benefitting from the various technical developments made in other sectors, and now has more options to use renewable energy afloat.

It is now simpler to harvest and store power on board than ever before – no bad thing when you consider how many power-hungry gadgets fill a modern cruising yacht.

From Nespresso machines to electric winches, sailing consumers are reaping the rewards of the efficient electricity generation.

The core of renewable energy generation for boats remains wind, solar and hydrogeneration, but the last two of these are developing rapidly.

Meanwhile hydrogen is continuing to make inroads into the sailing market.

Jimmy Cornell’s Outremer 4.Zero has covered 1,500 miles from Tenerife to La Grande Motte using renewable energy, but the multihull’s hydro and solar capacity needs to increase before he can take it around the world. Credit: Gilles Foucras

It all comes down to how much power you need: a kilowatt-hour over the day to run the fridge and electronics (83Ah), or 50 times that for induction cooking, air-con and even electric propulsion.

Wind remains an important part of the mix, capable of adding up to 500Wh on a blustery day, but here the technology is more mature.

There may be small incremental improvements – quieter blades or more efficient power transfer.

‘There is not going to be a silver bullet in respect of renewable generation on yachts because the physics tell us that the existing technology is already very efficient,’ says Peter Anderson, MD of Eclectic Energy.

The D400 converts an industry-leading 36% of the kinetic energy in a 12-knot wind stream into electricity

Sam Fortescue is a freelance marine journalist and former magazine editor who sails a Sadler 34, which has taken his family from the Caribbean to the Baltic

‘For example, our D400 wind generator converts 36% of the kinetic energy in a 12-knot wind stream into electricity. The theoretical maximum (Betz Limit) is 59%, and the latest multi-megawatt commercial turbines achieve around 40% efficiency due to their scale.’

Nonetheless, he believes that a yacht can cruise entirely independently of fossil fuel, and he’s far from alone.

Jimmy Cornell’s Elcano Challenge aims to prove just that , aboard an electrically-powered Outremer catamaran.

True, he has just put the round-the-world voyage on hold, because the regenerating prop could not keep up with demand.

But he thinks the answer is to beef up hydro and solar capacity while trimming power use on board.

‘I am determined to continue my zero-emissions project once certain changes have been made,’ he says.

Solar panels have been with us for decades, and as the technology has matured, so they can produce more power from the same footprint.

Even a small panel putting out a few watts is enough to keep a lead-acid battery bank trickle charging when the boat’s on a swinging mooring. But some have already gone much further than that.

Renewable energy: solar developments

Catamaran builders, in particular, have been trying to capitalise on the extensive deck area of their boats by fitting solar panels.

Silent Yachts is ahead of the curve on this, with a 55ft cat whose 49m2 coachroof and hardtop are carpeted with 10kW of panels.

On a sunny Mediterranean day, that provides enough electricity to run all the boat’s systems and leave plenty for a few hours of electric propulsion.

Luxury cat brand Sunreef has developed cells that can be built into the actual fabric of the boat.

Solar cells, built into the structure of luxury Sunreef multihulls, vastly increase the solar power potential

‘They can be easily mounted anywhere on the yacht’s surfaces, including the hulls, mast, superstructure, bimini roof or bow terrace, vastly increasing the amount of solar power,’ says the brand’s Sara Smuczynska.

‘Sunreef Yachts is also the first company to develop a system to recover heat from the panels to heat up the yacht’s boiler.’

With panels in the topsides, decks and coachroof, up to 13kW can be installed on a Sunreef 50.

Monohulls are a different story. Gantries, guard wires and coachroofs can support panels of a few hundred watts – enough for basic systems.

But if you want to generate serious solar power for more ambitious green goals, then you need to think laterally.

That’s what Frenchman Alain Janet did when he launched SolarCloth – a business that sticks solar cells to your sails.

SolarCloth cells on the mainsail of the Spirit 44E produce 560W on a sunny day. Credit: Sam Fortescue

The advantage to this is obvious: the sails offer the largest surface area and their near-vertical alignment can suit the angle at which sunlight falls on them.

The cells are based on proven copper indium gallium selenide (CIGS) technology, capable of around 17% efficiency and very flexible.

Simply glued to the sailcloth in positions that won’t chafe on the spreaders under any reefing conditions, they are robust enough to withstand flogging, folding and all manner of abuse, as demonstrated during the 2016-17 Vendée Globe race by skipper Conrad Colman.

More recently, Spirit Yachts integrated the technology into its beautiful 44E performance cruiser , launched last autumn.

The Spirit 44E under sail. Credit: Richard Langdon/Ocean Images

On the Spirit, the cells were arranged in panels 30cm high and about 2m wide on either side of the mainsail, producing 560W on a sunny day.

Dr Vincent Argiro, who commissioned that boat, wanted a fast, energy-efficient design.

‘The stretch goal for the 44E was near total energy self-sufficiency,’ he says.

‘I envision plugging into shore power to be a rare event.’

Janet acknowledges the junction boxes and wires needed to connect the sail to the deck are clunky, but he is developing a sleeker solution.

Meanwhile, a new partnership with One Sails to produce the so-called PowerSails will give the idea fresh impetus and broader distribution.

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Janet says a PowerSail costs 50-60% more than a standard sail, while the same technology has also been used to add photovoltaics to biminis and awnings on cruising boats.

All this is based on silicon technology, where the record efficiency for an expensive six-junction cell is 39.2% in natural light.

But further down the line, emerging Perovskite technology could make photovoltaics lighter, cheaper and applicable to any surface by painting or printing.

Researchers at Imperial College, Cambridge University and China’s Soochow University calculate that it has the potential to eclipse silicon with up to 60% efficiency, once the issue of durability has been cracked.

Luca Bondi, technical director of Italian solar panel producer Solbian, says the future lies in the combination of silicon and Perovskite in the same cell.

‘Tandem cells made by crystalline silicon and Perovskite raised close to 30% efficiency,’ he says.

‘The increase in efficiency is important but not disruptive, thus I think we cannot say that we have a big step imminent, but an improvement of the already good existing solar cells.’

For those who dislike the look of solar panels, there is another option.

A printable film has been developed which is stuck on top of the solar panel to disguise it.

Finishes range from monotones that match your paint to a teak-effect that would allow you to add solar panels to decks.

Solbian supplies its monocrystalline panels with this so-called iSP mask, and Bondi says that it does very little to reduce their 24% efficiency.

www.onesails.com/uk www.solbian.eu

Hydro power on board

Sails are the most abundant generators of renewable energy on board, propelling tonnes of yacht at a brisk pace.

Converting just a fraction of the boat’s kinetic energy into electricity can yield plenty of power for the loss of less than one quarter of a knot.

Broadly speaking, there are two approaches.

The first is the well-established principle of hydrogeneration, where you lower a dedicated propeller into the sea that is turned by the passing water and used to drive an alternator.

Products in this space are typically mounted on the transom and deployed using a lanyard to generate power.

Custom deck mount for a Sail-Gen hydrogenerator

They include the Watt & Sea, which comes in 300W and 600W units, Eclectic Energy’s SailGen and Italy’s 600W Swi-Tec.

More recently, regeneration has emerged as an alternative. It harnesses the same principle but uses your auxiliary propeller to generate the power, so no need for a bulky transom unit or the braking effect of a second prop in the water.

There are retrofit options available from the likes of Holland’s Bell Marine, but it is relatively expensive to install, so the more common option at the moment is to fit a new hybrid propulsion system – either diesel-electric or battery-electric.

If your engine needs replacing it’s worth considering.

However you configure it, hydro can be a very efficient way to generate power, especially at scale.

A dedicated propeller of a hydrogenerator is optimised in pitch and diameter for maximum torque

The 350ft Dynarig yacht Black Pearl is able to sail across the Atlantic without burning any fossil fuel – its twin props regenerate hundreds of kW of power.

Cruising yachts, on the other hand, will struggle to generate even a kW, and typical output at five knots doesn’t exceed 100W.

This is because the power out is a cubic function of boat speed, linked to water past the prop, so even a small speed increase hugely increases yield.

Nudge up just a little to seven or eight knots and you can get a more manly 300W from regeneration.

Dedicated hydrogenerators are more efficient because their props are pitched and sized according to your boat’s cruising speed.

With regeneration, your main prop will be optimised just for propulsion. Only a variable pitch prop can excel at both tasks.

Under sail in regeneration mode, the three-masted Black Pearl is capable of crossing the Atlantic without burning any fossil fuel. Credit: Tom Van Oosanen

That is what Finland’s Oceanvolt has achieved with the Servoprop – whose pitch adjusts electronically in real time to extract the greatest possible power from regeneration.

The team behind it claims that it can boost electricity output nearly threefold compared to a fixed prop.

Indeed, at seven to eight knots it produced 1kW of power.

There again, at five knots, output falls to around 200W.

It all depends on how much power you need.

For house loads, 200-300W should be more than enough, but for electric propulsion you’ll need far more.

Servoprop comes as a complete saildrive system with the option of either a 15kW or a 10kW motor.

But electric propulsion rival Torqeedo is sceptical about variable pitch systems on small motors.

‘It’s not possible to get much more than 300-400W because the physics makes it tough to adapt the pitch of the prop and to take care of the waves,’ says sales director Phillip Goethe.

‘When your speed through the water is changing often – from stalled to surfing, it is very hard to have the optimum pitch.’

Instead, Torqeedo’s notion is to spec a fixed-pitch propeller that strikes a compromise between propulsion and regeneration.

‘Perhaps you lose 2% [in propulsion], but gain two digits in hydrogeneration efficiency,’ says Goethe.

‘But for cruising applications, it doesn’t need to be optimised for propulsion above seven knots.’

Oceanvolt 15SP: from €46,660 ex-VAT www.oceanvolt.com Torqeedo: www.torqeedo.com Hybrid Marine: from £14,980 ex-VAT for a 30hp engine and 10kW motor. www.hybrid-marine.co.uk

The cost of hydrogenerators

Watt & Sea: £3,504.10 (300W) www.wattandsea.com SailGen: £2,464.69 www.eclectic-energy.co.uk Swi-Tec: £3,080 www.swi-tec.com

Hybrid options for renewable energy onboard

Isle of Wight-based Hybrid Marine specialises in diesel-electric parallel hybrid systems built around new Beta and Yanmar engines.

They can take advantage of regeneration and allow limited manoeuvring using the electric motor, with the diesel for longer passages.

Hybrid Marine specialises in diesel-electric parallel hybrid systems

‘Retrofits are tricky. It takes a lot of work to reliably convert an engine and means it has to be removed to make the conversion. Accumulated costs work out close to a new system,’ says MD Graeme Hawksley.

Hydrogen propulsion

Hydrogen fuel cells can be used either to provide small amounts of electricity to charge a battery, or at larger scale to power an electric drivetrain.

Either way, they can be emissions-free if they use hydrogen produced using renewable energy.

Hydrogen is attractive because it is three times as energy dense as diesel, but being a gas in ambient conditions, it must be stored under tremendous pressure – up to 350 bar on boats, requiring voluminous storage cylinders.

Efoy leads the market for marinised low-power fuel cells, with a 40W and 75W unit available.

Phil Sharp with the Genevos hydrogen power module

It burns methanol supplied in 5lt and 10lt ‘cartridges’ that are available from distributors across Europe.

You can simply clip the output wires to a suitable charging point on your battery system, but for optimum efficiency, Efoy also supplies its own Lithium batteries in 70 and 105aH capacities.

Though Efoy doesn’t quantify the benefit, it describes this combination of fuel cell and battery as ‘particularly efficient’ by avoiding unnecessary charging cycles.

A 10lt canister yields just over 11.1kWh of usable power – enough for four weeks of typical use, according to Efoy.

Beyond that there is a bit of a void in the market until you reach a power output of 15kW, where the purpose is to supply an electric motor for propulsion, as well as covering the boat’s domestic load.

French company Genevos has already started selling a 15kW fuel cell tested by singlehanded racer Phil Sharp during a Solitaire du Figaro campaign.

‘We’re going to see quite a lot of private projects as retrofits in coming years, and by 2025, there’ll be production boats with hydrogen energy systems,’ he says.

That’s despite typical costs of around €100,000 to supply and install a system.

French firm EOD is developing plans for futuristic looking floating hydrogen fuel stations that actually generate H2 from seawater

Rival Energy Observer Developments (EOD) is designing fuel cells in the 60kW to 1MW range for larger vessels.

It stems from a project that demonstrated how solar and wind power could be harnessed to make hydrogen from seawater on a round-the-world prototype.

Other than the sheer cost, the current stumbling block is that hydrogen gas is not yet widely available in ports or marinas.

‘However, we’re going to see much wider access to hydrogen in five years’ time,’ promises Sharp.

EOD is developing futuristic-looking hydrogen fuelling stations that float in a corner of the marina and generate hydrogen from seawater using green mains electricity.

And British firm Fuel Cell Systems says its first marina hydrogen pumps should be installed in the south of France this summer.

‘Although the UK will be very slow to pick it up in my experience,’ cautions CEO Tom Sperrey.

Efoy Fuel Cell 80: £2,195 Efoy 5lt methanol £37.80 Efoy 10lt methanol £53.40

www.fuelcellsystems.co.uk

Battery tech

Lithium is still the performance choice for storing renewable energy on board.

Advances in chemistry and design driven by the automotive sector are making it possible to store more energy in the same footprint.

So the capacity of the BMW i3 battery that Torqeedo offers has risen from 30kWh to 40kWh over five years.

Oceanvolt lithium batteries on a Feeling 32

Promising technologies have been demonstrated in the lab. California’s QuantumScope has developed a stable battery that uses solid lithium as the anode, and offers four times the energy density of current lithium batteries plus lightning-fast recharge speeds.

Other approaches use graphene, salt, aluminium and even ceramic, as well as solid electrolytes.

‘The technological development of batteries is really fast,’ says Oceanvolt’s head of R&D Marko Mäki.

‘We believe that in the future, the combination of battery price, capacity and safety will only improve.’

Expect performance gains of 5-10% per year.

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• Yachting World
• Digital Edition

Wind, water and solar power: how alternative energy has been transformed

• July 15, 2015

State-of-the-art solar power, wind and water generators have transformed the efficiency of alternative power sources. Can we say goodbye to diesel? Rupert Holmes investigates

Imagine a future in which there is never any need to fill up with diesel, buy gas, or top up water tanks and the only constraints are those of needing to stock up with food and maintenance of the boat itself.

It’s a scenario that’s much closer than many realise. The past decade has seen an accelerating pace of change, with technologies that appealed only to a minority, or were prohibitively expensive, now firmly entering the mainstream.

It’s already more than five years since the first of Gideon Goudsmit’s 44ft African Cat cruising catamarans sailed from South Africa to the Netherlands without using fossil fuel, even for cooking, watermaking and hot water.

Although many would baulk at the boat’s 80-mile range under power, this is not a quirky vessel in any other respect – it’s a spacious, fully fitted-out, comfortable cruising catamaran with a high level of equipment. In addition to solar and wind generators providing electrical power for the lightweight design, the boat’s electric propulsion motors were configured to be used as generators when under sail.

And it was by no means the first to do this. When Francis Joyon set the fastest time for a solo circumnavigation in 2007/8, his 80ft trimaran IDEC ll did not have a diesel generator. Similarly, Raphael Dinelli completed the 2008/9 Vendée Globe race without using any fossil fuel.

While few owners aspire to this level of self-sufficiency, incorporating some of these ideas can improve reliability and convenience for more conventional yachts, and may also reduce costs. Perhaps the most persuasive reason of all to fit additional means of generating power is that the presence of multiple charging systems improves a boat’s reliability by introducing a degree of redundancy – if one system fails much of the charging capacity remains intact.

Combining several different technologies can also balance the pros and cons of different power sources.

Thin film solar

A new development that could be the answer to the African Cat’s short range under its electric motors is extremely flexible giant solar panels that can be attached to sails, or even incorporated into the laminate. The durability of this technology was demonstrated at the end of last year by Daniel Ecalard, who used a pair of 3m 2 panels near the head of his mainsail to provide the electrical needs of his Open 50, Defi Martinique , during last year’s Route du Rhum race.

During the race the system stood up to a gale in the Bay of Biscay, in which ten per cent of the fleet retired, and survived the 25-day Atlantic crossing, during which Ecalard logged 4,677 miles, intact.

The system, named PowerSails, was developed by Alain Janet, owner of UK Sailmakers France. Each square metre of the panel is capable of generating 100 watts and, according to Janet, does not need direct sunlight to generate electricity: “In fact, the panels on the sail opposite the sun will generate 30-40 per cent of their maximum output with the indirect and reflected light,” he says.

These panels are made from film that’s 65 microns thick and weighs 100 grammes per square metre. This technology can also be used in other applications – a cockpit bimini shade, for instance, that could generate 1kW on a 50ft yacht.

Prices start at around £700 per square metre of panel, though this is expected to fall as production increases.

Mainstream markets

Janet has produced sails for a Dehler 39 in which a sizeable solar panel is laminated to the mainsail. The technology has also been harnessed by production boatbuilder Arcona, which has announced a version of its 38-footer equipped with an electric engine/regenerating system, sails with solar panels and a big bank of lithium ion batteries.

The boat debuted to great acclaim at this year’s Helsinki boat show, where it won the boat of the show award.

The solar panels in the mainsail are of sufficient size to generate an average of 1,000 watts of power, and the boat has a further 1,000 watts of solar panels. This is sufficient to drive it at four knots under power during daylight hours without taking any charge from the batteries.

Solar power

Almost every aspect of this sector has seen enormous development over the past decade, with worldwide installed capacity having grown by 3,000 per cent since 2005. The resulting economies of scale mean prices have tumbled, while funds are continuing to pour into research and development.

Panels are becoming progressively more efficient, with the best commercially available units now having an efficiency of around 25 per cent, although double that has been achieved in laboratory conditions.

At the moment the thin film panels mentioned above are around 12-14 per cent efficient, but in the future we can expect all types of solar panel to become smaller in area for a given output.

In addition, today’s panels are less susceptible to output drops when in partial shade and give good performance in cloudy conditions. This makes mounting panels on the coachroof, rather than a cumbersome gantry, an increasingly viable option.

Currently solar sells for a very wide range of prices, with most marine grade panels priced from around £200 to well over £500 per 100 watts.

Solar Pros:

√         Improving technology with reducing prices

√         Suitable for a wide variety of boats and conditions

√         Proven ‘fit and forget’ reliability

x         Many boats have insufficient space for a enough conventional solar panels

Hydro generators

The transom-mounted generators, such as those produced by Watt & Sea, originally came to prominence in the IMOCA 60 fleet, with the 2008 Vendée Globe race used as a gruelling testbed for the prototypes. They are capable of producing large amounts of power with minimal drag and can be lifted clear of the water when not in use.

The company’s cruising units are rated at either 300 or 600 watts, depending on the model chosen. The larger of these produces 120 watts of power amps at just five knots of boat speed, rising to more than 250 watts at 7.5 knots.

Over a 24-hour period that represents a significant amount of power that could alone run the majority of systems aboard many 50-60ft yachts, including watermakers, pilots, lights, electronics, refrigeration and water heating.

On the downside, hydro generators are relatively expensive compared with solar and wind generators, with Watt & Sea’s prices starting at a little over £3,000. Moreover, they are potentially vulnerable to damage when docking. The latter can be a particular problem in the Mediterranean, where most mooring is stern to the dock.

The Sail-Gen from Eclectic Energy (from £2,000) or the towed Aquair (a little over £1,000) from Ampair are more economic, though less convenient, alternatives.

Another option is a hybrid drive system with a regenerating function via the boat’s main propeller. Advantages include an absence of peripheral parts attached to the transom that may be susceptible to damage, or detract from a yacht’s aesthetics.

√         High power output

√         Impressively low drag

x         Transom-mounted types are expensive

x         Vulnerable to damage

x         Only works when the boat is underway

x         Impeller of transom-mounted models may leave the water if boat is pitching in a head sea

x         Towed type difficult to deploy and recover

Methanol fuel cells

These small, lightweight units have many attractions for use on board. Most are designed to monitor battery state constantly and automatically start charging once the voltage falls to 12.2V. They are almost silent in operation, with carbon dioxide and water the only exhaust products.

Output ranges from around 3 to 9 amps and more than one unit can be used to achieve higher charge rates. Given that a fuel cell can, in theory, run for 24 hours a day – unlike a marine diesel generator, which is more usually used for only two or three hours – a fuel cell can pump out a useful amount of power, despite the low amp hour rating.

On the other hand the long-term cost of ownership is a drawback. With retail prices of around £2,300-5,000 they are relatively expensive to buy, although installation costs are minimal. Additionally, the platinum catalyst has a finite life of around 5-8,000 hours. As this is by far the most expensive element, it’s clear that fuel cells aren’t yet up to providing power 365 days a year for long-term use.

A further problem is with the fuel, which to achieve the purity required is expensive and generally only available from specific outlets.

At the moment it looks as though fuel cells have more cons than pros for many yachts, although there are some circumstances in which they may make sense. For instance, they are popular on long-distance short-handed raceboats. A fuel cell may also be useful on a boat with a hydro generator that is self-sufficient on power while on passage, but may need an occasional boost when at anchor for long periods to supplement solar and wind charging.

√         Unobtrusive, clean and quiet

√         Easy installation

x         Long-term ownership and operating costs

x         Fuel not universally available

Wind generators

For several decades these were de rigueur for serious cruising yachts. On paper a decent-sized unit is capable of generating the entire needs of a 45-50ft yacht. However, they also have a number of drawbacks, the most commonly cited being noise and vibration in strong winds.

In addition, most cruising routes maximise time spent sailing downwind, which reduces apparent wind strength, which in turn dramatically reduces the output of a wind generator. Similarly, generating power in many anchorages can also be problematic, as the very shelter sought by the skipper also means that wind speed is generally significantly reduced.

Nevertheless, wind generators can be useful in some circumstances; the important thing is simply to recognise their strengths and weaknesses.

Prices range from small units producing just four amps or so for less than £400 to upwards of £2,000, although for most medium to large yachts £1,400-1,900 will buy a suitable system.

√         Capable of producing plenty of power in a strong breeze

x         Noisy and creates vibration

x         Output severely reduced in sheltered anchorages and when sailing downwind

x         Can be bulky and cumbersome

Typical daily power outputs

Typical power inputs for 12V systems (divide the ah figures by 2 for 24V systems)

Assuming the panels are mounted in an unshaded position, each 100W of rated capacity can be expected to produce, on average, around 33ah of charge per day during the UK summer.

For a yacht averaging 150 miles per day (6.25 knots), Watt & Sea’s 300W cruising model will produce around 175ah per day. This rises to around 275ah per day at an average speed of seven knots, but falls to 120ah per day at five knots average.

These have by far the biggest range of potential outputs, with many units averaging less than ten per cent of their rated output over a full year. That would equate to a mean of around 50ah per day for a model with blades of around 1.2m diameter.

However, there are few average days and a 24-hour period with steady 15-knot breeze would see the same unit produce more than 100ah per day. In a 25-knot wind it would be 500ah.

The daily output of fuel cells is very predictable. For example, a model rated at 5 amps would produce 120ah per day, if run constantly for 24 hours.

It’s worth noting that, as the catalyst nears the end of its life this figure will tend to reduce.

Battery monitors

The more complex a yacht’s systems, with multiple power inputs and outputs, the harder it is to keep track of the battery state. However, a properly calibrated battery state monitor will measure all the power flows in and out of each battery bank. This makes it easy to keep track of power consumed and keep charge levels above the 50 per cent of battery capacity needed to ensure good battery life.

Reducing power requirements

Despite the increasing complexities of many of today’s yachts, new technologies mean that power requirements are steadily reducing in many cases. Whereas only a few years ago the accommodation of a quality 60ft cruiser might have been lit by 400W of halogen bulbs, low-power LEDs can reduce that by 90 per cent.

Despite their growing size, TVs can now draw less power than a couple of 12V lights did a decade ago. Similarly, tablets and smartphones are increasingly used for activities that not so long ago could only be done with a power-hungry laptop.

Pragmatic solutions for cruisers

For most yachts it’s worth combining a number of different types of technology, depending on how you sail and where. Here are some options for a range of different scenarios:

1. Cruising in Northern Europe

Despite a reputation for inclement weather, solar power can be a very viable option here, thanks to long daylight hours and relatively cool temperatures. The latter may sound counter-intuitive, but the efficiency of solar panels reduces at higher temperatures.

Whether wind power is worthwhile may depend on where you’re planning to sail and the time of year. In mid-summer in the southern half of the UK, for instance, the wind is typically less than ten knots for 50 per cent of the time, so wind generators are of limited use. However, in western Scotland towards the end of the season you could generate plenty of power, which would compensate for the reduced solar output.

With the longest passages most yachts will make being 300-400 miles, a hydro generator is likely to be of less use than for boats making longer voyages. An exception might be for those planning to spend a lot of time at anchor and who therefore value the ability to arrive at an anchorage with batteries fully charged.

2. Mediterranean cruising

While many marina-based yachts, with ready access to shorepower, in the western Med appear to have been slow to adopt solar power, the opposite is true in the eastern Mediterranean where there are increasingly few privately owned yachts without an array of panels.

As an example, Alan and Deborah Mackenzie’s Lagoon 410 catamaran, based in the north-west Aegean, has three 100W semi-flexible panels. This has proved fractionally too small for their needs – to power a fridge, freezer, powerful fans and a 19in TV/DVD in addition to the boat’s systems. They plan to solve this with an additional panel.

Owners of monohulls tend to be more restricted by the space available to mount panels, although the new thin-film panels clearly offer a wider range of options. Given the relatively short distances most yachts travel on each passage, the same considerations regarding a hydro generator in northern Europe apply here.

Equally, in most parts of the Med, wind power is not viable for much of the time.

3. Caribbean

Here it would be easy to assume that solar is the best option. However, while it can certainly be useful, as the main sailing season is winter, when daylight hours are restricted, daily output is smaller than many owners expect. Given that the islands are in the tradewind belt, wind generators stand to produce a good output here.

4. Tradewind passagemaking

Here it’s clear that hydro generators (or power generation via a hybrid drive) have advantages and can deliver a good charge. Wind power, however, makes less sense for tradewind sailing, owing to the reduction in apparent wind speed when sailing downwind.

The output of solar will also suffer from the restricted number of daylight hours on a typical east to west Atlantic crossing. There are, however, more factors in favour of solar on a west to east crossing, as it is likely to be at a higher latitude – with more daylight.

5. World cruising

If you’re going further afield combining as many options as possible will yield the best rates of charging over a wide range of conditions. This is exactly the route taken by Jimmy Cornell, founder of the ARC, whose new Garcia 45 is fitted with solar, a Sail-Gen water turbine from Eclectic Energy and a wind turbine.

The water generator will create 50W of power at four knots of boat speed, rising rapidly to more than 250W at 7.5 knots. The wind turbine, from the same company, is also a high-power model, with a 1.1 metre rotor diameter, producing approximately 100W in 15 knots of wind, rising to 235W in 22 knots.

For more information:

www.africancats.com

www.sunware.de

www.solarclothsystem.com

www.wattandsea.com

www.efoy.co.uk

Eclectic Energy: www.duogen.co.uk

www.oceanvolt.com

www.ampair.com

www.hybrid-marine.co.uk

www.victronenergy.com

This is an extract from the June 2015 issue of Yachting World

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Sailboat Solar Systems and How-To

Solar on a sailboat goes together like hands and gloves, but sailboat solar systems can be installed in a variety of ways. The solar components themselves create an infinite combination of possibilities for off-grid sailing. Victron Energy chargers, Renogy Panels, Sunpower Yachts, BlueSea Systems, and many more brands have entered the marketplace, and that’s not including the lithium battery companies.

To simplify things, we’ve compiled three sailboat solar systems videos to give you an overview of what’s possible. And to help you decide on your own simple solar panel setup for sailing.

How-To Install Solar Panels on Your Sailboat

This system from Zingaro shows flexible panels summing 300w of power on a 38′ catamaran.

300W Solar System:

• Three 100w solar flexible panels
• 1 MPPT Solar charger controller

View on Amazon >>

100W HQST Flexible Solar Panels $100-$200

20amp Solar Charge Controller by Victron Energy $150-$200

Simple Sunpower Solar System

This simple solar system from The Fosters shows a quick and easy setup with limited space on top of a bimini.

Sunpower Solar Panels are considered by most in the industry as the gold standard. They use the highest-efficiency solar cells and have top-notch build quality. In this simple installation, three 50w panels are just enough to get you started. Plus, it’s the most affordable installation!

150w Starter Solar System

• Three 50w Flexible Solar Panels
• A Single 15amp solar charge controller

50W Sunpower Solar Panels $150-$200

75v/15amp Solar Charge Controller by Victron Energy $100-$124

Off-Grid on a DIY Solar Powered Sailboat

Here’s a special installation that turned a derelict sailboat into an off-grid sailing machine!

Simon has transformed this derelict sailboat into an epic off-grid solar-powered and fossil-fuel-free cruising catamaran. He’s been living aboard and renovating the boat for the past 3.5 years We’re excited to show you the transformation as well as how he plans to propel the boat without the use of diesel or fossil fuels!

5280w Solar System for Electric Powered Catamaran

• 16 Rigid solar panels (330w each)
• 20kwh of Lithium Batteries

240W Rigid Solar Panels $250-$300

200AH Lithium 4d Battery $1200-$1200

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The Energy Observer is a boat that makes its fuel out of seawater

But its ideas can't easily be brought to huge, diesel-guzzling container ships..

Energy Observer is a vessel powered only by energy that it generates itself, be it the onboard solar panels, wind turbines or a hydrogen fuel cell. It's a floating laboratory, PR stunt and clean-energy evangelist all at once, showing how the future of transportation could be. Halfway through its six-year journey around the world, the vessel stopped in London so we could learn what's happened since its voyage started.

"We test and mix a number of different [energy-generation] technologies, but the secret is in the mix," explained project manager Louis Noël Vivies. The vessel is covered in 168 square meters of solar panels, both laminated onto the shell and in rigid racks over the hull. The latter are double-sided, too, to pick up light reflected from the surface of the water. At peak output, the panels catch 28kW of power, enough to keep the on-board batteries charged.

There is 126kWh of batteries on board: 100kWh for the motors, and a further 26kWh for crew comfort. That includes light, heating and the ship's labor-saving devices, including a coffee machine, dishwasher and washing machine. The 100kWh battery supplies two 45kW propellers that can push the boat around at a top speed of 11 knots per hour.

When the batteries drop below 60 percent, the hydrogen fuel cell kicks in, replenishing the lost power to ensure continuous running. It's here, as a way of bridging the gaps inherent in using renewables, that hydrogen makes plenty of sense as a power source. And using hydrogen to power a boat is pretty logical, since there's an (apparently) inexhaustible supply of it in the water.

To do this locally, the EO is equipped with a desalinator, electrolyzer and a compressor. The water needs to be purified before having its hydrogen and oxygen separated, with the former being stored in a 62kg tank under 300 bar pressure. According to Vivies, 62kg worth of hydrogen is capable of running the ship for "three days, including creature comforts."

Except, for the first three years of the Energy Observer's journey, this extraordinary ability to synthesize its own fuel has had a fatal flaw. It doesn't work while the vessel is at sea, only when it's docked, when it could theoretically secure new fuel anyway. That's because the electrolyzer uses 25kW of energy, almost all of the boat's total output of 28kW. Do this at sea and there wouldn't be any power left over to propel the boat and keep the crew alive and warm.

This is going to hopefully change for the EO's 2020 tour (it docks every winter) when it sails across the Atlantic. The boat is expected to get new solar cells, increasing its peak output from 28kW to 32kW -- hopefully enough to run the electrolyzer while in motion. This upgrade has the potential to change how the boat operates, allowing it to stay at sea for much longer at a time.

If the EO can successfully transition toward using hydrogen as a power source, it'll get a lot faster, too. The ship's captain and project founder, Victorien Erussard, went to great pains to point out that the 100kWh batteries weigh 1,760kg. By comparison, the hydrogen systems are 1,700kg, and yet the energy potential for the latter is closer to 1,000kWh.

One of the ship's major backers is Toyota, which sees it as a key plank of its strategy to sell the world on hydrogen-powered vehicles . It believes that, eventually, the world will come around to its thinking on the benefits of hydrogen over electricity. Which is part of the reason Toyota hasn't really gone hard on building a dedicated EV over hybrids.

At the EO's London event, Toyota took the opportunity to remind the world that it has sold close to 10,000 of its hydrogen-powered Mirai cars. The bulk of those sales are in California and Japan, where the incentives and infrastructure to support hydrogen pumping are most prevalent.

Progress is slower in other countries as it waits for areas to build more gas stations to spur adoption. As we reported last year , however, the role of hydrogen in cars is going to be far smaller than it is for heavier vehicles . The lighter weight of hydrogen gear, coupled with its energy density, makes it a smart solution for trucks, trains and ships, more than small cars.

When the EO first launched, it also toted a pair of wind turbines designed to generate additional power at sea. In 2019, those were ditched in favor of a pair of sails -- although the team prefers you call them OceanWings. A strong, waterproof cloth drapes over two carbon fiber pylons which robotically unfurl to create extra lift in favorable conditions.

Rather than increasing top speed, the OceanWings' design should make the EO more power efficient. Vivies says that it's possible to limit the power consumption of the boat to 11kW to help new crew members understand its mission. If someone wants to use the coffee machine, the boat will divert power from the motors, to show them that "everything has a cost."

The OceanWings, as well as the ship itself, are fully autonomous, making it very easy to sail. Vivies explained that merchant sea crews are not interested in the finer points of race sailing and lack the experience to operate sails properly. By automating the process, it reduces the length of training time required before they can implement these systems.

The EO's team shared data about how much energy the boat consumed and generated as part of its trip from St. Petersburg in Russia on June 17th to Spitsbergen in Norway on August 10th. During the 24-day jaunt, the boat produced 9,160.8kWh of energy, 52 percent of which came from the sun. The OceanWings "contributed" 42 percent, around 3,717.82kWh, in terms of the aerodynamic aid it offered the boat. And the remaining six percent was from hydrogen. Of the total power, 59 percent propelled the boat, with the remaining 41 percent going to life support.

Next year, beyond the new solar cells, the team is exploring other ways for the ship to become more self sufficient in future. With a supply of pure water and oxygen from the electrolyzer, it may be possible to run a hydroponic garden on board. Admittedly, at sea, the options may be limited to some green vegetables, but should the world flood, Waterworld -style, it could be better than nothing.

Unfortunately, in an era when we need systemic change to avoid a climate catastrophe, the Energy Observer won't be enough to blaze a trail towards greening up aquatic transport. While the IPCC says that we have just over a decade to dramatically slash our carbon emissions, the design and implementation of the systems here are far too customized to retrofit onto dirty hulking container ships crossing the world.

Vivies himself said that the EO team's next goal is to sell hydrogen generators to one-percenters looking to green up their pleasure yachts and while it's proof that sustainable water transport is possible, at this level, nibbling around the edges of green energy isn't going to cut it.

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The Funky Boat Circling the Planet on Renewable Energy and Hydrogen Gas

Victorien Erussard, an experienced ocean racer from the city of Saint-Malo in the north of France, was halfway through a dash across the Atlantic when he lost all power. Sails kept the boat moving, but Erussard relied on an engine and generator to keep the electronics running. He temporarily lost his autopilot and his navigation systems, jeopardizing his chances of winning the 2013 Transat Jaques Vabre race.

Never again, he thought. “I came up with the idea to create a ship that uses different sources of energy,” he says. The plan was bolstered by the pollution-happy cargo ships he saw while crossing the oceans. "These are a threat to humanity because they use heavy fuel oil."

Five years on, that idea has taken physical form in the Energy Observer , a catamaran that runs on renewables. In a mission reminiscent of the Solar Impulse 2, the solar-powered plane that Bertrand Picard and André Borschberg flew around the world a few years back , Erussard and teammate Jérôme Delafosse are planning to sail around the planet, without using any fossil fuel. Instead, they'll make the fuel they need from sea water, the wind, and the sun.

The Energy Observer started life as a racing boat but now would make a decent space battle cruiser prop in a movie. Almost every horizontal surface on the white catamaran is covered with solar panels (1,400 square feet of them in all), which curve gently to fit the aerodynamic contours. Some, on a suspended deck that extends to the sides of the vessel, are bi-facial panels, generating power from direct sunlight as well as light reflected off the water below. The rear is flanked by two vertical, egg whisk-style wind turbines, which add to the power production.

Propulsion comes from two electric motors, driven by all that generated electrical energy, but it’s the way that’s stored that’s clever. The Energy Observer uses just 106-kWh (about equivalent to a top-end Tesla) of batteries, for immediate, buffer, storage and energy demands. It stores the bulk of the excess electricity generated when the sun is shining or the wind is blowing as hydrogen gas. An electrolyzer uses the current to spilt the water into hydrogen and oxygen. The latter is released into the atmosphere, and the H2 is stored in eight tanks, made from aluminum and carbon fiber, which can hold up to 137 pounds of compressed hydrogen. When that energy is needed, the H2 is run through a fuel cell and recombined with oxygen from the air to create electricity, with water as a byproduct. That’s the same way fuel cell cars, like the Honda Clarity and Toyota Mirai work.

By storing energy this way instead of with banks of batteries, Erussard made the Energy Observer three times lighter than the similarly sized MS Tûranor PlanetSolar, which became the first boat to circumnavigate the globe using only solar power in 2012.

And the new vessel is kind to the ears as well as the planet. “There’s zero sound pollution, it’s a true pleasure to navigate on this vessel,” Erussard said on stage at the recent Movin’On future mobility conference in Montreal, Canada.

Inside there’s a gleaming white helm, with two captains chairs, and living quarters that wouldn’t look out of place in 2001: A Space Odyssey , with an almost harshly minimalist white design. The team designed the furnishings to be as light as possible too, because a lighter boat uses less energy, and so is more efficient.

The team isn’t rushing things. The mission started in June 2017, and will last six years, reach 50 countries, and make 101 stops. The vessel has already travelled 7,000 nautical miles, to port cities around the French coast, and is now in the Mediterranean. It’s due to arrive in Venice on July 6, and spend 10 days in port, where the crew will meet the public, and set up an interactive exhibit to showcase environmentally friendly technologies.

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Sustainable energy propulsion system for sea transport to achieve United Nations sustainable development goals: a review

• Open access
• Published: 06 April 2023
• Volume 4 , article number  20 , ( 2023 )

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• Zhi Yung Tay 1 &
• Dimitrios Konovessis 2  

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The cost of renewable energy technologies such as wind and solar is falling significantly over the decade and this can have a large influence on the efforts to reach sustainability. With the shipping industry contributing to a whopping 3.3% in global CO 2 emissions, the International Maritime Organization has adopted short-term measures to reduce the carbon intensity of all ships by 50% by 2050. One of the means to achieve this ambitious target is the utilisation of propulsion systems powered by sustainable energy. This review paper summarises the current state of the adoption of renewable energy and alternative fuels used for ship propulsion. Special focus is given to the means of these alternative energies in achieving the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals, in particular Goal 7 (Affordable and Clean Energy), Goal 9 (Industry, Innovation and Infrastructure) and Goal 13 (Climate Action). A state-of-the-art for various ships powered by renewable energy and alternative fuels is investigated and their technologies for mitigating carbon emissions are described. The cost for each technology found in the literature is summarised and the pros and cons of each technology are studied.

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Putting the Pieces Together for Sustainable Shipping

Energy Transition in Maritime Transport: Solutions and Costs

Energy Efficiency and Management Onboard Ships

Avoid common mistakes on your manuscript.

1 CO 2 emission trends

1.12 billion metric tons of carbon dioxide (CO 2 ) were released by ocean-going vessels in 2007 [ 1 ]. This value was equivalent to the annual greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions from over 205 million cars [ 1 ]. In addition, international shipping contributed to around 3.3% of global annual CO 2 emissions calculated in the third greenhouse study by the International Maritime Organisation (IMO) [ 2 ]. Since global trade is constantly growing, IMO also predicted that the emissions from international shipping could grow between 50 and 250% by 2050 [ 3 ].

Based on the data found on IEA’s website that track the CO 2 emissions from international shipping [ 4 ], the emission reduction was not on track with the IMO’s goal. The emission rate from the shipping fleet alone was about 800 million metric tonnes of CO 2 in 2019, 794 million metric tonnes in 2020 and increased to 833 million metric tonnes in 2021 [ 5 ]. This trend was not consistent with the goals set by the IMO and thus alternative energy sources have to be sought to support and work towards the goal of cutting CO 2 emissions by 50% by 2050 [ 2 ].

The maritime industry contributes to over 90% of shipping all around the world [ 6 ]. With an estimated emission of around 1,056 million tonnes of CO 2 in 2018, the maritime industry itself was responsible for 2.89% of global GHG emissions [ 7 ]. However, with the onset of new renewable technologies and alternative fuels, the emissions from the maritime industry are expected to be cut down significantly. The industrial revolution for ship propulsion led to innovative technologies such as steamships and the introduction of coal, followed by new generation ships powered by oil. The 4 th industrial revolution for ship propulsion will see the use of clean energy in the evolution and growth of the shipping industry. Currently, thanks to the mission set by IMO, ships using heavy fuel oil (HFO) that produce GHG such as Sulphur Oxides (SO x ) and Nitrogen Oxides (NO x ) were required to reduce their sulphur content to 0.5% or less in 2020 [ 8 ]. Furthermore, stricter measures were put in place in Emission Control Areas (ECA) such as the North Sea and the coast of the United States, designated under the MARPOL Annex V1 [ 9 ]. Technology has also evolved, and shipping companies are considering various methods to achieve the intended zero emissions in their ships, such as using electric propulsion ships loaded with batteries, and next-generation marine fuels such as hydrogen, ammonia and biofuel. Furthermore, the use of wind and solar power is also being considered as a hybrid propulsion system integrated with conventional diesel-powered vessels to reduce fuel consumption and carbon emissions.

According to a report by International Energy Agency [ 10 ], the current policy framework estimates that low- and zero-carbon fuels are projected to make up roughly 2% of total energy consumption in international shipping in 2030 and 5% in 2050 [ 10 ]. This falls severely short of the 15% in 2030 and 83% in 2050 set in the Net Zero Scenario [ 10 ]. To reduce emissions, other renewable energy technologies need to be implemented such as the technology of using ammonia as the fuel source for international shipping, which is the main low-carbon fuel that is projected to reduce emissions in the Net Zero Emissions Scenario [ 10 ]. The various initiatives to decarbonise the shipping industry in alignment with the UN SDGs are provided in the next section.

2 Sea transportation and United Nations Sustainable Development Goals

The shipping industry and research community have been actively seeking means to reduce GHG emissions since the initial strategy for the reduction of GHG emissions from ships was adopted by IMO in 2018. Various methodologies and technologies were proposed such as via the installation of exhaust gas cleaning systems [ 11 , 12 ] (EGCS, also known as scrubbers), slow steaming [ 13 , 14 ], achieving fuel efficiency using big data and machine learning systems [ 15 , 16 , 17 , 18 , 19 , 20 , 21 , 22 ], optimization of ship engineering design [ 23 , 24 , 25 ], innovative ship design to reduce ship resistance [ 26 , 27 ] and many more. Numerous state-of-the-art reviews on the utilisation of alternative fuel (AF) and renewable energy (RE) in the maritime industry in achieving the climate target have been covered, e.g., in [ 28 , 29 , 30 ]. Law et al . [ 31 ] made a comparison of AF for shipping in terms of lifecycle energy and cost and reviewed 22 potential pathways toward decarbonisation of the shipping sector. Wang et al . [ 32 ] summarised the low and zero-carbon fuel technologies of marine engines and proposed the future development of low and zero-carbon ships. A techno-economic assessment of alternative marine fuels for inland shipping was presented by Percic et al. [ 33 ], Korberg et al. [ 34 ] and Fam et al. [ 34 ] where the Percic et al . [ 33 ] article highlighted that methanol as the most economical AF. The usage of AF and technologies for short-sea shipping were also covered in [ 35 , 36 ]. The current state of ship propulsion and alternative options from the aspects of costs, infrastructure, regulations etc. in achieving decarbonisation by 2050 were highlighted in [ 37 ]. A comprehensive review of the means to decarbonise the shipping industry via assessment of fuels, efficiency measures and policies was highlighted in [ 38 , 39 ]. The articles suggested that LNG must be combined with various efficiency measures to meet the 50% climate target whereas wind assistance presents a strong potential to reduce fuel consumption.

While numerous review articles touched on the utilization of RE and AF in the maritime industry from the techno-economical, fuel efficiencies, policies etc. points of view, this review article is motivated by the role the maritime industry could play in achieving the United Nations (UN) Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) to eradicate poverty and achieve sustainable development by 2030 via the use of RE and AF. Set up in 2015 and adopted by the UN Member State, the UN SGDs are a collection of 17 interlinked global goals designed to be a “shared blueprint for peace and prosperity for people and the planet, now and into the future” [ 40 ]. The IMO as part of the UN family is actively working towards the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development and the associated SDGs. The IMO has committed to reducing GHG from international shipping by at least 50% by 2050 compared to the 2008 level, with a vision to phase GHG out entirely in this century. Recognizing the fact that around 90% of traded goods are carried by sea transportation [ 41 ], there is no doubt that the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development could only be achieved with sustainable sea transportation.

The IMO has taken steps towards raising awareness of the UN SDGs in the maritime industry looking to further cooperation and partnership building to help implement the 2030 Agenda [ 42 ]. While the IMO has summarized the role of sea transportation in meeting the 17 SDGs, this review paper shall focus in particular on the adaptation of RE and AF to achieve SDG 7: Ensure access to affordable, reliable, sustainable and modern energy for all , SDG 9: Build resilient infrastructure, promote sustainable industrialisation and foster innovation and SDG 13: Take urgent action to combat climate change and its impact . These three SDGs are selected due to the urgent need to fight climate change and there has been a significant technology advancement utilising renewable and sustainable energy as ship propulsion systems. In this review paper, a comprehensive study will focus on the use of RE and AF to achieve SDG7, SDG9 and SDG13.

The paper will be organised into the following chapters: The paper will first summarise the state-of-the-art of the current RE- and AF-powered shipping vessels, their advantages and disadvantages. While the authors acknowledge that numerous comprehensive review articles have been attributed to this subject, this section that focuses on the RE and AF technologies, carbon and GHG reduction, and their pros and cons are necessary to be included to provide essential background for further discussion in Chapter 4. The utilization of RE and AF as the power sources for sea transportation as a means to tackle climate change (SDG13) is then outlined in Chapter 4. This is followed by a review of how these alternative sources of energy could be used to achieve SDG7, SDG9 and SGD13. Last but not least, a summary of the use of sustainable energy ship propulsion systems to achieve the UN SDGs is provided.

3 Technology review: renewable energy-and alternative fuel-powered propulsion systems for ships

According to the statistics of CO 2 emitted from various transportation means from 2000 to 2020 [ 43 ], shipping contributes to an average of 10.86% of total CO 2 emission from the transportation sector (see Fig.  1 ). Although this number is relatively small compared to other sectors, such as land transport (i.e., road freight vehicle, passenger vehicle and rail in Fig.  1 )—76.67%, and comparable to aviation—11.14% (note that these values are not plotted in Fig.  1 but calculated directly from the data obtained from [ 43 ]), the continuing growth of sea-borne goods transportation could result in a surge of global GHG emissions by 50% by 2050 if no initiatives are taken to mitigate the GHG emissions [ 44 ]. The shipping industry has been looking into RE and AF-powered propulsion systems as a means to achieve this goal. Renewable energies such as wind and solar produce power without releasing harmful GHGs like CO 2 into the atmosphere. As part of a global energy future, clean energy is important for the environment to reduce the risk of environmental disasters, such as fuel spills and natural gas leaks arising from the traditional use of hydrocarbon fuel. On the other hand, AF—any fuels that are not petroleum based—such as liquified natural gas (LNG), hydrogen, ammonia, biofuels and methanol could play a significant role in mitigating carbon and other GHG emissions. Note that although it is possible to produce 100% clean ammonia and hydrogen from renewables, also known as green ammonia and green hydrogen respectively, these two fuels are classified as AF in this paper as they can also be produced from non-renewables and thus produces CO 2 and GHG emission in the production process.

Carbon emissions from various means of transportation [ 43 ]

In this section, the state-of-the-art technology review of the currently available RE and AF-powered shipping vessels will focus on the various types of technologies, their carbon and GHG emission, pros and cons as well as some examples of existing and conceptual designs to provide a background for facilitating the discussion in Sect.  3.7 . This section is not meant to provide comprehensive coverage of RE and AF for ship and interested readers may refer to the aforementioned review articles [ 28 , 29 , 30 , 31 , 32 , 33 , 37 , 45 ] and those listed in the following subsections for different RE and AF.

3.1 Renewable energy

The commonly used RE propulsion system found in ships are the wind, solar and nuclear propulsion system. These renewables are clean and produce zero-carbon emissions. Over the years, the efficiency of these renewable technologies has improved, and the costs have been reduced significantly making them potential clean sources of energy as alternatives to fossil fuels.

3.1.1 Wind propulsion

Wind energy has been harnessed since 3500 BC by the Egyptians [ 46 ] and allowed the realization of Magellan’s expedition 500 years ago which led to the first expedition to circumnavigate the globe. With the rising concern of global warming and climate change, naval architects and marine engineers have revisited this old concept of ship propulsion which has huge potential to address the modern-day’s challenge of GHG emissions.

The yearly-averaged wind speed around the major maritime route is reported to be around 2 to 6 m/s in the tropical region with increasing wind speed as it goes beyond the subtropical climate as shown in Fig.  2 [ 47 ]. This abundance of wind resources could be captured by wind energy-extracting technologies installed onboard the ship. An economic and operational review of wind-assisted ship propulsion technology is given in [ 48 ]. Depending on the type of wind energy technology installed onboard the ship, a fuel reduction of up to 90% and CO 2 emissions reduction of up to 80% could be achieved. Some of the wind-assisted propulsion system (WAPS) class notations adopted by DNV-GL [ 49 ] are presented in Fig.  3 . In this section, the focus is emphasized on three common technologies for the wind-powered/wind-assisted ship, i.e., (i) wing sail technology, (ii) Flettner rotor technology and (iii) kite technology.

Global yearly averaged wind speed in m/s at 100 m above sea level [ 47 ]

Common WAPS class notation and Standard ST-0511 by DNV [ 49 ]

(i) Wing sail technology

Wing sail technology is an adaptation to the earliest wind-assisted technology by propelling the ship using the soft sail, which is flexible and can be stowed when needed. The modern wing sail technology, also known as the hard sail, was inspired by the design of the wings of an aeroplane where the aerofoil shape has a better lift-to-drag ratio as compared to the traditional soft sail [ 50 ]. The installation of wing sails on a ship improves the aerodynamic performance by decreasing the drag, thus increasing the vessel’s speed [ 51 ]. Several commercial vessel proposals adopt various wing sail technologies to harness wind by different means, i.e., (a) hard sail (rigid wing sail) (b) soft sail and (c) airfoil hull.

(a) Hard sail (rigid wing sail)

An example of the hard sail wind propulsion system is the Oceanbird wind-driven cargo ship which relies 90% on wind energy to sail [ 52 ]. The remaining 10% of the auxiliary power requirement could be powered by clean energy such as liquid biogas. The installation of hard-wing sails is expected to save 90% of the fuel equivalent to a reduction of 90% in GHG emissions [ 53 ]. More wing sails could be installed on the ship to improve the performance in terms of speed of the vessel, e.g., a total of five wing sails were proposed to be installed on Oceanbird as shown in Fig.  4 a to achieve a speed of 17 knots, comparable to the speed of a fuel-powered ship [ 54 ]. The number of wing sails could be increased depending on the power requirement. E.g., the next-generation hybrid sailing cargo vessel—UT Challenger (Fig.  4 b) proposed by the University of Tokyo is equipped with nine 360-degree rotating hard-wing sails [ 55 , 56 ]. The power requirement and encountering wind speed from which the required Thrust \(T\) could be calculated as [ 51 ]

where \(\rho\) is the mass density of air, \(v\) the apparent wind speed, \(A\) the area of wing sail and \({C}_{T}\) the thrust coefficient.

Ships equipped with wind sail technology. a Ocean Bird ( www.theoceanbird.com ). b UT challenger ( www.wind-ship.org/en/utwindchallenger ). c B9 Sail ( www.b9energy.co.uk ). d Vindskip ( www.ladeas.no )

To tap on the maximum amount of wind energy, the height of the wing sail could also be elevated [ 52 , 55 ].

(b) Soft sail

Some naval architects have reconsidered the traditional soft sail in their future ship design due to the flexibility in retracting the sails when travelling in a location of low air draught or when wind resources are limited. The former allows the ship to pass through low bridges while the latter allows the reduction of ship resistance that might arise from the wing sails. Although the soft sail has a relatively lower performance compared to the rigid sail in terms of speed, the growing popularity of slow steaming makes this technology attractive as means for ship decarbonization. An example of a soft sail-powered vessel is the 100% fossil fuel-free cargo ship—B9 ship (Fig.  4 c). B9 ship is equipped with a hybrid system that uses wind energy and a biogas-powered engine where 60% of the power is harnessed by wind [ 57 ] whereas the remaining 40% is by liquid biomethane derived from municipal waste [ 57 , 58 ].

(ii) Flettner rotor technology

The Flettner rotor is an electric-powered rotating cylindrical structure built vertically on the deck of the ship [ 59 ]. As wind past through the rotating cylinder, this creates the Magnus effect where a lateral force perpendicular to the direction of the airstream is created and thus generates a forward thrust as shown inFig.  5 [ 60 ]. The first ship to be powered by vertical rotors was built by German engineer Anton Flettner, which later gave the name to the rotor. The Flettner rotors are one of the most common wind-assisted propulsion devices and have been adopted in diesel-powered commercial ships to reduce fuel costs and carbon emissions [ 61 ].

Working mechanism of Flettner rotor [ 60 ]

The Flettner rotor has shown promising results in reducing the fuel consumption and carbon emissions of ships. For instance, the fuel consumption of the Ro-ro cargo ship—E-Ship 1 (Fig.  6 a), was reported to reduce by 22.9% with the help of four 25-m high and 4-m diameter vertical Flettner rotors on a voyage between Emden and Portugal [ 59 ]. The use of two Flettner rotors on Norsepower’s Ro-ro carrier MV Estraden (Fig.  6 b) also managed to reduce fuel consumption by 5% [ 59 ] and carbon emissions by 1% [ 62 ].

Commercial ships equipped with Flettner rotors. a E-Ship 1 ( www.enercon.de ). b MV Estraden ( www.bore.eu ). c SC Connector ( www.nosrsepower.com ). d Berge Neblina and Berge Mulhacen ( www.anemoimarine.com ). e MV Copenhagen ( www.corvusenergy.com ). f Viking Grace ( https://www.airseas.com/ )

Similar to the rigid wing sails, ships installed with Flettner rotors might not be able to pass under bridges easily due to their air draught limitation. To overcome this problem, a tiltable Flettner rotor was thus invented such as the world’s first tiltable Flettner rotors fitted on the Ro-ro vessel—SC Connector [ 63 ] shown inFig.  6 c and the four ‘folding’ rotor sails on two bulk carriers, i.e., Berge Neblina and Berge Mulhacen [ 64 ] presented inFig.  6 d. The annual CO 2 emissions and fuel consumption are estimated to be reduced by almost 25% [ 63 ] for the SC Connector and by 1,200 to 1,500 tonnes for the two Berge vessels [ 64 ].

Flettner rotor wind sailing technology has also been adopted by passenger vessels, such as the MV Copenhagen (Fig.  6 e) and Viking Grace (Fig.  6 f) where both vessels are equipped with one Flettner rotor. The rotor sail in MV Copenhagen is estimated to cut down carbon emissions by 4 to 5% [ 65 , 66 ] which amounts to an estimated annual savings of 878,000 L of diesel [ 67 ]. The CO 2 emission reductions also add up to a total of 2,344 tons per year [ 67 ]. On the other hand, Viking Grace (Fig.  6 f) is the first passenger vessel to use 100% sulphur-free LNG [ 68 ]. This vessel also uses the energy recycling system which converts the excess heat from engines to clean and carbon emission-free electricity that adds up to 700,000 kWh per year [ 68 ].

(iii) Kite technology

Kite technology is one of the methodologies explored by Airseas in propelling the Ro-ro vessel [ 69 ]. A parafoil sail also known as an automated kite seawing has been built on the Ville de Bordeaux Ro-ro vessel (Fig.  7 ). The seawing system that has a surface area of 500m 2 and flies at an altitude of 300 m uses prevailing winds to propel the ship [ 69 ]. An automated flight control system and kite technology have been implemented together to develop the seawing [ 70 ]. This seawing system is expected to reduce fuel consumption and carbon emissions by 20% and it can be installed easily on any vessels [ 66 , 70 ]. To maximize fuel savings, digital twin technology is employed, and route optimization algorithms are developed to aid in weather routing [ 70 ] and to optimize the energy harness at its wind direction and speed.

An automated kite Seawing built on Ville de Bordeaux ( www.bureauveritas.com )

Advantages and disadvantages of wind-powered/wind-assisted vessels

Out of the many potential RE, wind technology is a relatively matured technology and has been implemented in commercial vessels to reduce CO 2 and other GHG emissions. It is reported by DNV that the Flettner rotor could achieve an average fuel savings of 10%—30% and the wing sails can reduce environmental footprint by up to 45% [ 71 ]. Wind-assisted shipping technology causes the overall demand for fossil fuels to significantly reduce and thus lowers the overall operational costs of shipping to the consumer. The addition of the wind system in a vessel might be beneficial in ways such as it reduces engine and machinery wear and tear, as well as reducing machinery and structural vibration [ 48 ]. To maximize the benefits of the wind, weather routing using big data analytics and machine learning is being developed [ 72 ]. This will also reduce the disruptions by adverse weather conditions [ 73 ].

While wind power works well for smaller vessels, it is unpredictable for larger vessels. Although wind is a clean source of energy, abundance and completely free, it is unpredictable as the wind does not always blow in the direction and speed favourable to the ship's voyage. The amount of energy produced by the propeller depends on the speed of the wind [ 74 ]. Tall, wide-wing sails also have travel constraints when the ship is sailing under bridges and when the ship docks in tight ports [ 48 ]. Moreover, it is not yet ready for the ship propulsion system to be fully powered by the currently available wind technology. As the vessels required high wind speed to achieve higher energy efficiency, this may also cause ship stability and manoeuvring problems under rough sea conditions.

3.1.2 Solar propulsion

Solar energy is the cleanest and most abundance RE resource available. The total amount of solar radiation that reaches the earth's surface is given in Fig.  8 and is estimated to be in the range of 150 W/m 2 to 250 W/m 2 for the tropical to subtropical climate. When the sunlight reaches the earth's surface, this energy could be harnessed by the installation of solar technology such as solar photovoltaic (PV) panel that converts solar energy into electricity (see Fig.  9 ). Most commercial solar PV panels could achieve an efficiency between 15 to 20% while the cost of solar PV panels is also attractive between $2.60 to $3.20 per watt [ 75 ], thus making solar energy an attractive option in decarbonization. Solar panels have been added to the deck of shipping vessels in the quest to reduce CO 2 and other GHG emissions. According to the review article by Qiu et al. [ 76 ] on solar-powered vessels, ships equipped with solar PV panels are becoming one of the most promising and fastest-developing green ships. The following section shall review some of the solar technologies available in the market and examples of vessels equipped with solar PV panels. The advantages and disadvantages of the solar-powered vessel will be compared.

Surface downward solar radiation in W/m. 2 [ 47 ]

Power conversion mechanism for solar PV panel ( www.MrSolar.com )

There are two ways of powering vessels with solar PV technology. The first utilizes solar PV technology to supply electricity for handling all electrical loads whereas the second uses the hybridization of solar power with diesel engines, usually in huge vessels where high electrical loads are required [ 77 ]. Also, a hybrid system is needed as there may be insufficient space on the vessel’s deck for the installation of solar PV panels to meet the vessel’s power demands [ 77 ]. However, installing solar PV technology in vessels as part of the hybrid system is still advantageous because it is a relatively faster and simpler way to reduce fuel consumption and carbon emissions of ships.

It is possible to power passenger vessels solely with solar PV technology, e.g., the Solar Shuttle (Fig.  10 a) by SolarLab was the first vessel to depend on PV technology entirely [ 78 ]. This 42-passenger vessel does not emit carbon and eliminates the production of 2.5 tons of carbon emission annually compared to a similar-sized diesel boat [ 79 ]. India also has her first 75-passenger solar-powered ferryboat—Aditya (Fig.  10 b), capable of making 22 trips per day covering a total of 66 km [ 80 ]. This solar-supported vessel with energy storage batteries saves a total of 58,000 L of diesel.

Examples of solar-powered vessel. a SolarShuttle ( www.solarshuttle.co.uk ). b Aditya ( www.swtd.kerala.gov.in ). c Sun21 (ww.transatlantic21.org). d MS Turanor ( www.planetsolar.swiss ). e Solar Sailor ( www.change-climate.com ). f Blue Star Delos (bluestarferries.com)

Solar power has been shown to be a reliable renewable power source to provide a continuous power supply for vessels. E.g., A solar powered 6-passenger catamaran vessel—Sun21 (Fig.  10 c), equipped with PV panels on a flat rooftop became the first solar-powered vessel to cross the Atlantic in 2006 successfully whereas MS Turanor (Fig.  10 d), also a fully solar-powered catamaran, successfully circumnavigated the globe for 584 days from 2012 to 2014 [ 81 ]. Another interesting solar power-assisted ferry is the 100-passenger Solar Sailor (Fig.  10 e) which utilizes two types of RE, i.e., wind and solar to operate. The ferry has rigid sails which are covered with photovoltaic modules [ 78 ]. The sun and the wind are captured efficiently because of the rotatable sails. The propulsion system of the Solar Sailor is a hybrid system that uses electric and diesel to operate [ 78 ].

Marine solar power trials were also done on a larger passenger ferry – the 2,400-passenger Blue Star Delos (Fig.  10 f) to evaluate the use of solar power on commercial ships. By using a thin panel PV technology that was designed to withstand exposure to saltwater, the trial concluded that direct current (DC) load did receive a continuous stable supply of power from the energy storage of the low-voltage marine solar power system [ 82 ]. The build-up of dirt and salt was found to have minimal impact on the performance of the solar panels.

Advantages and disadvantages of solar power-assisted vessels

Although solar power could not completely power large commercial ships, it has been proven that it is possible to power harbour crafts such as ferries, tugboats and patrol vessels. Ferryboats used in tourism areas and other small vessels can be operated entirely by solar PV technology and this could lead to zero-carbon emissions in the tourism sector. The operational costs of a solar-powered vessel are cheaper compared to a conventional diesel-powered vessel, at the same time, the fuel consumption, carbon emissions and operational costs are significantly reduced. The best possible way to maximize the efficiency of the solar PV modules is by installing the solar PV panel on a flat roof top so that sunlight could be received without any obstructions. Additionally, the highest solar irradiation can also be captured by the panels.

Similar to wind energy, the weather conditions at the sea are unpredictable and research has yet to overcome the problem of stabilizing the output power of the ship’s propulsion system powered by solar. The efficiency of solar panels may be affected by the ambient temperature and the sun’s irradiation due to their high level of sensitivity [ 77 ]. Space for the installation of PV panels is a challenge as most ships have limited space. The photovoltaic modules also need to be placed at parts of the vessel which are greatly exposed to sunlight. The batteries, the total weight of the solar panels and other equipment may add to the overall weight of the vessel, and this may lead to ship stability issues [ 77 ].

3.1.3 Nuclear propulsion

Nuclear propulsion consists of a nuclear reactor where steam is produced from the heat exchanger to drive a turbine that then propels the vessel (see Fig.  11 ). Uranium is the most common and widely used fuel for a nuclear reactor and can be found easily in seawater and rocks, also known as Uranium ores [ 83 ]. Nuclear fuel made with Uranium extracted from seawater makes nuclear power completely renewable as Uranium extracted from seawater is replenished continuously, thereby making it an endless source of fuel supply like wind and solar. New technology breakthrough from DOE’s Pacific Northwest (PNNL) and Oak Ridge (ORNL) National Laboratories has made removing Uranium from seawater within economic reach [ 84 ].

Nuclear propulsion system ( www.man.fas.org )

The nuclear propulsion system has been used for other sea transports, especially in submarines and naval vessels. The nuclear propulsion system allows the vessels to be out in the ocean for a longer period without refuelling and this is important for submarines, naval vessels, or even ice-breakers that operate in extreme weather conditions. The world’s first nuclear-powered icebreaker – Lenin, was launched in 1959 and equipped with two OK-900 nuclear reactors [ 83 ]. The capacity of the reactors was 171 MWt each and the power delivered to the propellers is 34 MW [ 83 ]. Compared to the more recent nuclear-powered icebreaker built in 2017 – Sibir, the two 175 MWt reactors installed on the vessel can deliver 60 MW to the propellers [ 85 ], almost twice the performance as compared to its counterpart built in 1957. Considerations to utilize nuclear propulsion systems are made for merchant vessels due to their zero-carbon emissions and as a clean source of energy.

Gil et al . [ 86 ] have researched the technical and economic feasibility of nuclear propulsion systems installed in a passenger cruise ship. The vessel can utilize either the turbo-electric machinery system or the direct-drive steam turbine system to satisfy the overall power load of 81.4 MW [ 86 ]. For a conventional shaft-driven propulsion system, the direct-drive steam turbine system would be ideal whereas the turbo-electric machinery system would be more suitable if increased manoeuvrability and podded propulsion are required [ 86 ]. Interested readers on the advances in nuclear power system design may refer to [ 87 ] on the means to enhance the safety condition of nuclear-powered ships.

Advantages and disadvantages of a nuclear-powered vessel

Nuclear-powered vessels are mostly used for icebreaking as they are generally more powerful than conventional diesel-fuelled vessels [ 88 ]. According to Zerkalov [ 88 ], the amount of diesel fuel needed to perform icebreaking is about 90 metric tons of fuel daily compared to only 1 pound of Uranium required by a nuclear-powered vessel. Refuelling of a nuclear reactor only occurs once every five to seven years thereby this helps to save up heavily on fuel costs. More importantly, no GHG is produced when a vessel is sailing using the nuclear propulsion system.

However, health and safety factors remain the main reasons why vessels are slow to adopt nuclear-powered propulsion systems [ 83 ]. The risks of cancer and leukaemia are high due to the large doses of ionizing radiation and radioactive waste. The installation and maintenance costs of nuclear-powered vessels are also expensive [ 83 ].

3.2 Alternative fuels

Alternative fuels are potential fuel sources that could be used as alternatives to fossil fuels in decarbonizing the maritime industry. These fuels emit less CO 2 and GHG gas as compared to the conventional HFO or marine diesel fuel used in ship propulsion and have higher efficiency compared to the RE fuel source. Five commonly used AF, i.e., LNG, hydrogen, ammonia, biofuel and methanol are reviewed.

3.2.1 LNG fuel

LNG is one of the most environmentally friendly fossil fuels thereby making the use of LNG fuel attractive compared to the traditional HFO or marine diesel for ships [ 89 ]. LNG consists of 85 to 95% methane, along with 5–15% of ethane, propane, butane, and nitrogen. Although LNG is not that beneficial when compared to RE as it still emits carbon and traces of nitrogen oxide, it is better when compared to marine diesel as it produces less carbon and nitrogen oxide [ 90 ].

The technology of powering ships with LNG is not new and has been around for four decades [ 91 ]. According to the statistics provided by DNV, as of 2021, 251 vessels in operation use LNG as fuel and 403 in construction or confirmed [ 73 ]. The marine LNG engine uses the boil-off gas (BOF) evaporated from the liquid state when heat is introduced into the tank thereby causing the pressure in the tank to increase. The BOF may have to be released into the atmosphere by safety valves if the tank pressure gets too high due to liquid sloshing in the high sea. However, this BOF could also be routed to the ship's propulsion system and used as fuel for the power plant (see Fig.  12 ), which could reduce the fuel cost [ 92 ].

LNG fuel system with pump ( www.marine-service-noord.com )

LNG-powered vessels are gaining popularity and major ports in the world are in the process of upgrading with LNG bunkering facilities. While LNG bunker facilities are more readily available in Northern Europe, the LNG bunkering infrastructure that is required for the shipping industry is improving quickly in the Mediterranean, the Gulf of Mexico, the Middle East, China, South Korea, Japan and Singapore [ 93 ].

LNG marine propulsion systems are already in use in various vessels such as the passenger ferry—MF Glutra [ 94 , 95 ], offshore supply vessel—Viking Lady [ 95 ], and tanker—MR Tanker [ 95 ]. United Arab Shipping Corporation (UASC) has also built a massive container ship running on LNG fuel entirely [ 95 ]. The dual-fuel engines are used so that the vessel can run on LNG fuel and low-sulphur fuel oil to further reduce the CO 2 and GHG emissions. Calculations were also done for the GHG emissions, and it was reported that using a 100% LNG-powered propulsion system could reduce the CO 2 and NOx emissions by 25%, SOx by 97% and the amount of diesel particles in the atmosphere by 95% [ 95 ]. An overview of the characteristics of LNG is provided in [ 96 ].

Advantages and disadvantages of LNG fuel technology

Compared to conventional diesel oil engines, the LNG fuel system is cleaner and has a higher level of efficiency. The estimated cost for an LNG-powered vessel is 20 to 25% higher than a diesel-powered vessel [ 91 ], and the feedstock price of LNG is currently comparable with marine gasoil [ 97 ]. Moreover, the machinery of the LNG system has a longer lifespan and lower maintenance cost than an oil engine. More importantly, the carbon content in LNG is lower than diesel, therefore making LNG engines emit less CO 2 than traditional diesel engines. The technology and infrastructure needed for LNG to be utilized as fuel for vessels are readily available since the technology has been around for decades.

On the other hand, the LNG fuel system also has its cons as highlighted in [ 98 ]. For instance, LNG fuel tanks consume a large amount of space as the volume occupied by the tanks is 1.8 times larger than diesel oil. Additional space and necessary equipment are needed to store LNG as it requires a low temperature [ 99 ] to remain at cryogenic state. The LNG storage tanks must also be insulated and need specialized gas handling systems [ 99 ] thereby contributing to additional CAPEX. Also, LNG is highly flammable as it has a low flashpoint (− 188 °C), and can be dangerous if it is mixed with air [ 91 ].

3.2.2 Hydrogen fuel cell

The hydrogen fuel cell is a potential AF for decarbonising the shipping industry [ 100 , 101 , 102 ]. Hydrogen could be a form of clean RE depending on its production process. Hydrogen could be classified into three types, i.e., (i) green hydrogen derived from renewables (ii) blue hydrogen from natural gas and supported by carbon storage and sequestration and (iii) grey hydrogen from natural gas and fossil fuels. The world’s first offshore platform to produce green hydrogen from wind energy was launched in France in 2022. Green hydrogen could also be produced from ocean thermal energy [ 103 ] or wave via the installation of wave energy converters on offshore platforms [ 104 , 105 , 106 ]. This energy could be utilized in the form of fuel cells, also known as polymer electrolyte membrane (PEM) fuel cells. The PEM fuel cell comprises two electrodes, i.e., the anode and cathode where electricity is generated by chemical reactions that take place in these two electrodes. The oxygen that enters from the cathode will combine with the electron and hydrogen ions, then generates electricity and produces water as a by-product (see Fig.  13 ). As the product of hydrogen fuel cells is water and no oxides of nitrogen, sulphur, carbon, and other air pollutants are produced, it presents one of the most promising future energy resources in mitigating CO 2 and GHG emissions [ 107 , 108 , 109 ]. Furthermore, as the chemical energy of the fuel is converted directly into electricity in the hydrogen fuel cells [ 110 ], the efficiency of the energy conversion process can reach up to 40 to 80% [ 107 , 111 ]. However, since hydrogen fuel cell technology is still in the development stage, hydrogen fuel cell-powered vessels are currently in the experimental research stage and are only feasible for use on passenger vessels such as cruise ships and ferryboats [ 111 ]. The world’s first hydrogen-powered vessel—Energy Observer (see Fig.  14 a), launch a six-year expedition from 2017 to 2022 to optimize its technologies. The Energy Observer is also the first vessel in the world capable of producing decarbonized hydrogen on board from sea water and using an energy mix relying on renewable energies.

Working mechanism of hydrogen fuel cell ( www.eia.gov )

Hydrogen-powered vessel. a Energy Observer ( www.marine-insight.com ). b Nemo H2 ( www.vlootschouw.nl ). c SF BREEZE ( www.maritime-executive.com )

A feasibility study of RE was done on a 150-passenger high-speed passenger ferry – SF-BREEZE (see Fig.  14 b) [ 112 ]. The SF-BREEZE carries a total of forty-one 120-kW fuel cells which is enough for four hours of non-stop operation [ 112 ]. Even though hydrogen is the lightest fuel, a comparison between SF BREEZE and a conventional diesel ferry—Vallejo—showed that the fuel cell-powered vessel requires 10.1% more hydrogen fuel than the diesel ferry because PEM fuel cell-powered vessel is heavier due to the additional requirement for fuel cell power racks, liquid hydrogen tank, evaporator and other balance of plant items [ 112 ].

The hybridization of PEM fuel cells with batteries is a common combination in the utilization of hydrogen fuel cell technology in the ship. An example is the 88-passenger cruise boat—Nemo H2 (see Fig.  14 c), operating in Amsterdam since 2009 and the FCS Alsterwasser [ 109 ]. The hybrid propulsion system for the former is made up of a 60-kW to 70-kW PEM fuel cell which operates the electric motor with a 30-kW to 50-kW battery [ 109 , 113 , 114 ] whereas the latter comprises two fuel cell systems with a power output of 48 kW each and a 560 V lead gel battery pack [ 115 ].

Advantages and disadvantages of fuel cell powered vessels

Fuel cell-powered vessel contributes to significant carbon emission reduction and has quiet operation and better efficiency as compared to conventional diesel-powered vessel. One of the main advantages of fuel cells is that the level of efficiency increases when operating at a high temperature because it is feasible to recover heat from the exhaust gas when the operating temperature is high [ 109 ].

Several challenges hinder the adoption of fuel cells in decarbonizing ships [ 116 ], among them—poor reliability, limited lifetime, limited hydrogen supply, and last but not least, high production costs [ 109 ]. Also, as hydrogen gas does not exist on earth naturally and must be produced via processes like electrolysis or reformation of hydrocarbon fuels [ 109 ], these processes increase the operational costs of the PEM fuel cell system. Moreover, additional facilities are needed to support the fuel cell system, thus will contribute to the overall weight, and affecting the stability of the vessel [ 109 ]. For fuel cell systems to be safe, factor such as the toxicity of the fuel, the flammability limits, the temperature of auto ignition and finally the density of the fuel has to be considered [ 109 ]. As hydrogen is highly inflammable, more cost must be invested in the infrastructure for frequent monitoring of the gas storage area and a rapid venting system must be installed in case there are any leakages [ 109 ]. Although the high-temperature fuel cell system sounds appealing, there are some challenges associated with it, namely, low overall power-to-volume density, limited cycling time, poor performance and long start-up duration [ 109 ].

Despite the high investment cost involves, it is expected that the costs of hydrogen production to fall remarkedly alongside the advancement of renewable power generation technologies as manufacturing capacity for more efficient and cost-effective electrolyzers grows.

3.2.3 Ammonia fuel cell

Another source of potential AF for ship is ammonia [ 117 , 118 , 119 , 120 ]. Ammonia is produced commercially via the catalytic reaction of nitrogen and hydrogen at high temperatures and pressure known as the Baber-Bosch process, therefore does not emit any CO 2 when burned. However, ammonia does release high levels of nitrogen oxide as it has a high nitrogen content [ 121 ]. Similar to PEM fuel cells that use pure hydrogen, solid oxide fuel cells (SOFC) which use ammonia are possible sources of clean energy [ 122 ]. As the PEM fuel cell system cannot use ammonia directly [ 122 , 123 , 124 ], it can be combined with ammonia to make it feasible in generating energy [ 122 , 123 ]. Like hydrogen, ammonia can be classified into the same green, blue and grey colour scheme depending on the carbon intensity of the methods for making ammonia [ 125 ]. An example of ammonia powered vessel is the Kriti Future, which is the world’s first ammonia-powered vessel delivered in 2022 (seeFig.  15 ) [ 126 ].

World first ammonia-powered vessel, Kriti Future ( www.worldenergynews.gr )

Advantages and disadvantages of ammonia fuel

The most common method to combust ammonia is the utilization of fuel cell systems in internal combustion engines [ 123 ]. The main benefit of this method is that it produces lesser noise, reduces carbon emission, has a high level of thermal efficiency [ 97 ], is environmentally friendly, and enables fuel flexibility [ 122 ].

While carbon emissions-free ammonia, known as green ammonia, could be produced from renewables, the process of making blue and grey ammonia involves steam methane reforming (SMR) and the Haber–Bosch process consumes a lot of energy – emit 90% of CO 2 and produce around 1.8% of global CO 2 emissions, and increase production cost. Ammonia also releases a large amount of nitrogen oxides due to its high level of nitrogen content [ 121 ].

The infrastructure cost of producing ammonia is high as infrastructures that could endure high temperatures are needed to achieve a high level of fuel utilization [ 122 , 123 ]. Also, due to its toxicity, corrosion-resistant infrastructure like stainless steel is needed as ammonia is corrosive especially when there are water vapour and air in the atmosphere [ 123 ]. The aspect of the safe use of ammonia fuel cells in the maritime industry is summarised by Cheliotis et al. [ 127 ]. Insulated pressurized tanks are needed to store ammonia and this means that a larger space onboard the vessel is required for storage [ 121 ]. The space needed to use ammonia is more than the space needed to use marine gas oils, biofuels, LNG and even methanol. The costs of implementing ammonia are therefore higher than using marine gas oils or LNG and are similar to the costs of implementing hydrogen and biofuels.

3.2.4 Biofuels

Carbon–neutral biofuels such as bioethanol and biodiesel (a.k.a. fatty acid methyl ester) could be used as drop-in fuels in the shipping industry without the need for new fuel infrastructure thereby making biofuels one of the most technologically ready and high potential AF [ 128 , 129 , 130 ]. There are three generations of biofuels, i.e., (i) First-generation biofuels—biodiesel, bioethanol and biogas, produced directly from crops such as corn, soy and sugar cane [ 89 ], (ii) Second-generation biofuels produced from non-food biomass, such as lignocelluloses, wood biomass, agricultural residues, waste vegetable oil, and public waste [ 89 , 131 ] and (iii) Third-generation biofuels derived from microalgae cultivation. 99% of the current biofuels are of the first generation.

Biofuels are potential alternatives to power ships, but the unattractive costs and the limited availability of biofuels are factors that hinder the use of biofuels in the shipping industry [ 89 ]. However, the price for biofuels is predicted to be more attractive in the near future, as claimed in a report by DNV [ 97 ]. On the other hand, biofuels are also flexible because they can be mixed with existing fossil fuels and act as a replacement to power conventional diesel engines. Combusting a kilogram of biodiesel produces 2.67 kg of CO 2 [ 132 , 133 ]. This is significantly lower when compared to burning a kilogram of marine diesel i.e., 3.206 kg of CO 2 [ 134 ], and a kilogram of heavy fuel oil i.e., 3.114 kg of CO 2 [ 135 ].

As a step to head towards maritime decarbonization, NYK has conducted a trial on a bulk carrier—Frontier Sky—powered by biofuel to transport cargo from Singapore to the port of Dhamra [ 136 ]. The trial was conducted successfully to prove the feasibility of using biofuels as an alternative to fossil fuels. Similarly, a biodiesel blend that consists of 7% biofuel and 93% regular fuel was tested successfully in a trial on Frontier Jacaranda from Singapore to South Africa. The biodiesel was blended from waste cooking oil and claimed to reduce CO 2 emissions by around 5%, compliant with the International Standard Organisation’s requirement for marine fuels and requires no substantial engine modification.

Advantages and disadvantages of biofuels

Biofuels constantly receive attention worldwide due to many significant reasons. The first and main reason is because of its renewable and sustainable nature. Secondly, the production process of biodegradable biofuels generates less toxic waste [ 137 ]. Lastly, biofuels are cost-effective. When biofuel is used by a vessel, it is proven to improve the performance and efficiency of the engine [ 137 ]. The combustion process of biofuels does not release any NO x or SO x [ 138 ]. As biofuels could be produced from waste food, this is also aligned with the UN’s circular economy and sustainable development framework [ 139 ].

The first-generation biofuels which constitute 99% of the biofuels consumption today are mainly derived from feedstock such as corn and sugar beet [ 137 , 138 ]. This risks food prices as the prices may shoot up due to the high demand for feedstock [ 137 ]. Furthermore, a food crisis will occur because of the potential competition between farmers and biofuel producers for the supply of corn [ 137 ]. To create biofuels, high levels of energy are required [ 140 ] and lots of space are needed to develop biomass for first-generation biofuels [ 137 ]. This factor is highly undesirable as there must be an assurance of sufficient space to produce AF and avoid a potential food crises [ 140 ].

3.2.5 Methanol fuel

Methanol is an attractive AF as it can be produced efficiently from alternative energy sources and involves low production costs [ 141 , 142 ]. Methanol is produced from natural gas by reforming the gas with steam. Pure methanol is then created from this synthesized gas mixture via the process of conversion and distillation [ 143 ]. Methanol became a possible fuel candidate when the oil crises occurred during the 1970s and 1980s resulting in the rise in gasoline prices and causing fear of oil shortage [ 141 ]. As a result, methanol became the fuel candidate for fuel cells. Although methanol is usually not desired to be used as a transportation fuel because of its corrosiveness and high toxicity, several vessels have been running successfully by using methanol as an AF. E.g., the Ro-pax ferry—MS Stena Germanica—was retrofitted to use methanol as a fuel and equipped with methanol storage tanks [ 144 ]. The operation of methanol is expected to reduce SO x emissions by 99%, NO x by 80%, CO 2 by 15% and particulate matter by 99% [ 143 ].

Advantages and disadvantages of methanol

There is an unlimited amount of methanol readily available in the world [ 145 ] and 70 million tons of methanol are produced annually. Methanol could be completely renewable, i.e., green methanol, as it can be produced by RE. Also, as methanol is biodegradable, fuel spill of methanol is relatively less detrimental to the environment compared to an oil spill of conventional diesel oil [ 145 ].

However, methanol has a low energy content [ 141 ] as compared to other AF (20.09 MJ/kg methanol vs 45.30 MJ/kg Butane, 47.79 MJ/kg Ethane, 37.53 MJ/kg biodiesel, 42.79 MJ/kg marine diesel), and this means that a larger volume tank and massive fuel injection systems are required. Due to the high corrosiveness and toxicity in methanol, this may cause high maintenance costs to the vessels, and thus higher operating costs over the years [ 145 ]. To use methanol fuel, different infrastructures are required to withstand the high corrosivity and toxicity, and therefore existing vessels have to be retrofitted with fuel storage tanks and double-walled pipes [ 145 ].

3.3 Comparisons

The types of sustainable energy suitable for marine transport are summarised in Fig.  16 and their advantages and disadvantages are summarised in Table 1 . The energy generation from RE and AF differs significantly as RE does not require combustion whereas AF required a combustion system in the form of an internal combustion engine (ICE) or dual fuel engine. A comparison between the fuels in RE and AF categories is separated in this section. The performance of the RE-powered vessels, i.e., wind propulsion, solar propulsion and nuclear propulsion is made. Their effectiveness in achieving energy efficiency and CO 2 emissions is presented. This is then followed by a comparison between different AF, i.e., LNG, hydrogen, ammonia, biofuels and methanol.

Types of sustainable energy for ship

3.3.1 Performance of renewable energy

Renewable energy-powered vessels are known for their superiority in mitigating CO 2 and GHG emissions and achieving fuel reduction. Some of these REs have achieved a high maturity level, with some being adopted in the existing vessel and new-built vessels. E.g., the Flettner rotor and solar PV panels are two of the most used RE retrofitted into existing diesel-powered vessels. The Flettner rotor can reduce CO 2 emissions and achieve fuel reduction by up to 30% [ 48 ] whereas the fuel consumption of UT Challenger using the hard wing sail technology could be reduced by 50% [ 56 ]. The kite technology also shows promising results in reducing fuel consumption by up to 20% in a trial conducted by Airseas [ 146 ]. A summary of the fuel savings that could be achieved from various wind energy technologies is presented inTable 2 . Similarly, a significant amount of fuel, CO 2 and GHG emissions reduction could also be achieved on vessels equipped with solar PV panels.Table 3 summarizes the available information on these reductions extracted from Pan et al . [ 147 ]. The main disadvantage of wind and solar power is that it could not yet be used to fully power large commercial vessels due to the unpredictable wind and solar resources, therefore has to be integrated with the traditional diesel-power propulsion systems.

Nuclear fuel on the other hand is a relatively mature technology and has long been used in navy vessels and icebreakers. This allows vessels to stay offshore/in the sea for a longer period without refuelling and is essential for vessels operating in remote locations such as icebreakers and submarines. Nuclear has a high energy content, i.e., one Uranium fuel pellet creates as much energy as 1,000 kg of coal [ 148 ] and is completely clean but it produces radioactive waste that is harmful to human health and the environment.

3.3.2 Performance of alternative fuels

DNV-GL has reported in its Alternative Fuel Insight Platform that of the total number of vessels in the world, 0.50% are currently running on AF while the rest of the vessels are still running on conventional fuels such as diesel and HFO [ 97 ]. However, there is an increasing trend to switch to AF, where 11.84% of AF-powered vessels are currently in order.Fig.  17 shows the number of ships operating in different fuels currently in operation and on order. Among the AF, there is a high uptake of LNG.

Uptake of alternative fuels in the world fleet, July 2019. Figures reproduced from data obtained in [ 152 ]

The next best-performing AF after LNG is methanol which shows moderate to good performance in all categories. GHG emissions for methanol are similar to LNG as the former is derived from nitrogen and the latter is a petroleum-based fuel. Biodiesel performs very well in a few high-priority categories, i.e., energy density, technological maturity and capital cost, and therefore has received substantial attention from the shipping community as a potential AF. Properties of the various AF compiled from different resources are summarised in Table 4 [ 153 ]. It is to note that the qualitative comparison for different AF in Fig.  18 is for a generic study; the specifics for the case being evaluated, such as ship specifications, local conditions, access to energy carriers and so on, have to be taken into consideration for more accurate and detail analysis.

Technology maturity level for various alternative fuels [ 152 ]

4 Renewable energy and alternative fuel in ships to achieve UN SDG goals

The international shipping community has been working actively to achieve the UN SDG Goals since it was first launched in 2005. Here, the focus will be given on how sustainable propulsion systems via RE and AF could achieve SDG 7: Ensure access to affordable, reliable, sustainable and modern energy for all , SDG 9: Build resilient infrastructure, promote sustainable industrialisation an d foster innovation and SDG 13: Take urgent action to combat climate change and its impact.

4.1 SDG 7: ensure access to affordable, reliable, sustainable and modern energy for all

In the quest to seek carbon–neutral or zero-carbon alternative energies for ship propulsion systems with the aim to reduce carbon emissions, it is important to ensure that the cost per energy for these sustainable propulsion systems remains affordable as this may have a significant impact on the cost of consumerism goods. It is estimated that AF in container shipping will be almost as economical as using HFO [ 154 ].

Figure  19 shows the projected annual price for operating a container ship and a bunkering location in the Middle East in 2030, by fuel type [ 154 ]. The operational cost for the LNG power propulsion system is comparable to the conventional heavy fuel oil counterpart, at 26 million dollars per year. Other AFs that are 50% higher in annual operating cost compared to HFO are ammonia and biodiesel. E.g., the cost for the fuel cell energy consumption for the SF BREEZE was estimated to start from $5.43 per kilogram for non-renewable liquid hydrogen and $8.68 per kilogram for green hydrogen [ 114 ]. This makes the cost for the hydrogen fuel cell system twice to eight times more than a conventional diesel ferry as the current cost of PEM fuel cells is high [ 114 ].

Annual price for operating a container ship and a bunkering location in the Middle East in 2030, data obtained from Statista [ 154 ]

As the cost of hydrogen fuel cell-powered vessels is high, a hybrid system that integrates AF with diesel- or/and RE fuels is proposed. A case study was done by a team of researchers in Sweden where they considered a hybrid solar power—PEM fuel cell and diesel generator propulsion system for a cruise ship [ 155 ]. The study compared the cost of a cruise ship relying 100% on diesel generators and the hybrid RE system. Overall, it was found that it is a little more expensive to adopt a hybrid clean energy system, i.e., $260/MWh vs $223/MWh [ 155 ]. However, considering the fact that the PEM fuel cell system for the cruise ship is expected to reduce carbon emissions by 4.39% yearly which approximates 902,364 kWh [ 155 ], this presents an attractive alternative. While the cost for other AFs, i.e., biodiesel, methanol, hydrogen, and ammonia fuel cells are relatively higher as compared to their fossil fuel counterparts, the prices are expected to decrease with the increase in the maturity level of the AF technology. A.P. Moeller—Maersk for instance has reported that their recent order of six container ships that could be powered by methanol has an additional CAPEX of only 8 to 12%, which is an improvement compared to their previous order in 2021 [ 156 ].

Ship propulsion systems powered by RE such as solar, wind and nuclear power are also potential candidates that could provide affordable energy for green logistics. The cost of solar PV panels is currently at an attractive price between $2.60 to $3.20 per watt [ 75 ]. A report by Thandasherry [ 80 ] that compared the CAPEX and OPEX between the solar-powered vessel and diesel-power vessel showed that in the long run over a life cycle of 20 years, the solar power alternative can save at least three times the total cost compared to the traditional diesel-powered option.

The CAPEX for RE and AF-powered vessel is usually higher than the vessel running on fossil fuels, due to the cost of the propulsion system and special equipment needed to accommodate these RE and AF such as specialized tanks. However, the OPEX is expected to reduce in the long run. E.g., while the CAPEX for a nuclear-powered vessel could be 16.5 times higher than a conventional diesel vessel, the OPEX of the former is half of that of the latter [ 83 , 86 ]. The overall cost analysis shows the total cost of a nuclear-powered vessel will be lower than the diesel vessel after the 8 th year. This makes the nuclear-powered propulsion systems a promising candidate for decarbonizing ships considering the shipping industry has to phase out fossil fuel eventually to achieve the CO 2 emission set by IMO, i.e., 50% CO 2 reduction by 2050 and eventually phase out by 2100 [ 157 ].

4.2 SDG 9: build resilient infrastructure, promote sustainable industrialisation and foster innovation

Government spending on energy research and development is on an increasing trend as shown in Fig.  20 where the spending grew by 3% with robust expansion in Europe and the United States [ 158 ]. The marine industry has moved forward with technological advancement in seeking for AF to play a role in tackling climate change. To achieve IMO targets of reducing CO 2 emission by 50% by 2050, many innovative ideas have been proposed and adopted such as scrubbers, carbon sequestration, data analytics and machine learning and last but not least, the use of RE and AF. New infrastructure to support maritime green transition is established and this has revolutionised the supply chain to ensure sufficient, sustainable and affordable AF for the maritime industry.

Government’s spending in energy research by countries, data obtained from IEA [ 158 ]

Various countries have invested heavily in infrastructures such as the production, conversion, storage and bunkering facilities for ammonia, hydrogen and LNG needed to support the utilization of AF. Figure  21 shows the global LNG bunkering facility for various types of ships in 2021–2022 [ 159 ] where 32 LNG bunkering facilities are readily available and 42 are on order. The LNG receiving terminals are being developed rapidly as transferring LNG by pipeline is costly and therefore used less now. Driven by the short-term increase in natural gas demand due to the Russo-Ukrainian War and coupled with the rise of fuel oil, governments in Europe and Asia are transitioned away from fossil fuels and invested heavily in low-carbon energy infrastructure. It was reported that the investment in new LNG infrastructure will increase to $32 billion and $42 billion in 2023 and 2024, respectively [ 160 ]. These readily available LNG infrastructures will drive the demand for LNG-powered vessels where the total LNG supply is expected to double in coming years, approaching 636Mtpa in 2030 from 380Mtpa (million tonnes per annum) in 2021.

Global LNG infrastructure [ 159 ]

The relatively affordable ammonia fuel as an AF for the ship has driven companies such as Azane Fuel Solutions to be created to fill an existing gap in the ammonia fuel chain by developing ammonia ship bunkering infrastructure technology, products and services [ 161 ]. The bunkering terminal could be in the form of a shore-based or floating option, where the first option allows direct ship bunkering alongside the quay, whereas the second option allows for flexibility and transportation of the facility to the location where the ammonia vessel is operating. Maersk has also unveiled plans for the establishment of Europe’s largest production facility of green ammonia—a sustainable green fuel, produced from wind energy.

Fig.  22 shows the technical maturity level for various types of fuels [ 152 ]. Comparing the technical maturity level with the cost per energy in Fig.  19 , it can be deduced that in general, the cost per energy of the AF reduces with a more matured technology, i.e., a lower Technical Maturity Level (TML).

Technology maturity level for various alternative fuels, data derived from [ 152 ]. FC Fuel Cell; ICE Internal Combustion Engine; DFHP Dual Fuel High Pressure; DFLP Dual Fuel Low Pressure; HVO Hydrotreated Vegetable Oil. Technology Maturity Level (TMR) is interpreted as:. TML1—Measures that are off the shelf and commonly used on new ships. TML2—Measures that are commercially available, but not fully mature. TML3—Measures that are under piloting, and/or with only a few commercial applications. TML4—Measures that have not been tested at full scale and no piloting or full-scale testing underway

4.3 SDG 13: take urgent action to combat climate change and its impact

The annual global GHG is at a record high of around 50Gt [ 162 ], a rise of 57% since 1990 [ 163 ] as shown in Fig.  23 . The earth's temperature is projected to rise by 2.5 to 2.9 \(^\circ\) C based on the current policies and will continue to increase to 4.1 to 4.8 \(^\circ\) C if no further climate policies are enforced. The sea water level is projected to rise by 2 m under the worst-case scenario causing inundation to coastal cities and island nations [ 164 ]. Under the Nationally Determined Contributions (NDC)—a climate action plan submitted by countries under the Paris Agreement of the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) to cut emissions and adapt to climate impact by 2030 [ 165 ], the global warming projection will still be above the Paris Agreement limit set at below 2 °C compared to the pre-industrialized level [ 166 ]. In view of this, all parties, including the maritime industry must play a part in mitigating the CO 2 and GHG emissions.

Global GHG emission and warming scenarios under various policies [ 163 ]

Fig.  24 shows that a total of 614 million tons of CO 2 was emitted from ships, contributing 368 million tons of CO 2 to the atmosphere. Out of the various vessels considered in Fig.  25 , containers account for 29.9% of the CO 2 emissions [ 167 , 168 ], followed by dry bulk (27.5%) and tankers (21.1%), thereby contributing to a whopping 60% of the CO 2 emissions. As shipping still presents the most economical mode of transportation for the delivery of goods, the growth of ocean freight market will continue to grow. Therefore, the CO 2 and GHG emissions are expected to increase compared to the emissions in 2019 shown in Fig.  24 .

CO 2 emission from world fleet [ 168 ]

Yearly energy consumption of ships in relation to diesel and gasoil consumptions in 2016, data derived from DNV-GL [ 169 ]

Given this, bulk carrier companies such as Maersk have invested heavily in LNG infrastructure in the quest to decarbonize their vessels [ 161 ]. Besides that, A.P. Moller-Maersk has recently ordered six large container vessels that can be powered by green methanol, contributing to a total order of 19 vessels running on duel fuel engines that can operate on green methanol [ 156 ]. These large bulk carriers have also been equipped with RE technologies such as Flettner rotor, kite technology and solar PV panel, where significant improvements in fuel consumption and carbon emissions are reported as presented in Tables 2 , 3 .

Fig.  25 presents the yearly consumption of AF used in the shipping industry compared to diesel and gasoline in 2016 [ 169 ]. Crude oil remains the most commonly used fuel for the shipping industry which is 305% higher than gasoil and diesel. However, the use of natural gas is catching up at 243% with LNG contributing 24% and gas contributing 219%. The use of LNG and biodiesel could reduce CO 2 emissions by around 21—27% as compared to fuel oil as shown in Fig.  26 . The CO 2 emissions for other AFs such as green hydrogen, biogas and green methanol are significantly lower than fuel oil, however, the uptake of these AF is still relatively small as presented in Fig.  25 . It is to note that the CO 2 emissions for AF such as hydrogen could be significantly low when used onboard the ship (i.e., Tank to Propeller—TTP) but depending on its production process, the CO 2 emission could be even higher than oil fuel during production, e.g., hydrogen derived from methane (CH 4 ) (see Fig.  26 ).

CO 2 emission of alternative fuels during production and on-board ship, data derived from DNV-GL [ 169 ]

The initiatives taken by the shipping industry in reducing CO 2 and GHG emissions via Energy Efficiency Operational Indicator (EEOI) and Ship Energy Efficiency Management Plan (SEEMP) have managed to serve an impact on the overall reduction of CO 2 emissions (see Fig.  27 [ 170 ]). In 2050, it is projected that the CO 2 emissions will reduce by 40%, bringing the new CO 2 emissions to 1,900 million tonnes, if Scenario A1-B4 stipulated in IMO MARPOL Annex V1 measures is adopted whereas the emissions will decrease by 35% to 1,300 million tonnes if Scenario B2-1 is adopted.

Projected annual CO 2 emissions from shipping sector, data derived from [ 170 ]

The CO 2 emissions from shipping activities are projected to increase exponentially in the next few decades as shown in Fig.  27 . However, the new CO 2 emissions based on the B2-1 ‘s least stringent SEEMP criteria with a high waiver uptake have a more gradual increase rate as compared to the A1-B4’s low SEEMP criteria and low waiver uptake. An interesting point to note is that the emission reduction by EEOI will be higher in the long run as compared to the counterpart by SEEMP, due to the improved efficiency of the ship propulsion systems and the increase of uptake and maturity level of various AF in the future.

5 Conclusions

Innovative means of ship propulsion systems by the use of RE and AF were presented. The state-of-the-art of RE, i.e., solar-, wind- and nuclear-powered propulsion technology was first reviewed followed by the AF, i.e., LNG, hydrogen, ammonia, biofuels and methanol fuel-powered vessels. The pros and cons of these RE technologies and AF were also compared. While wind and solar energy could not yet be used to power large commercial vessels fully, wind-assisted vessels could reduce fuel consumption and CO 2 emissions significantly (20% for Flettner rotor, 50% for hard wing sail and 20% for kite technology). Nuclear energy is currently used mostly in navy vessels and icebreakers but has a huge advantage to being used in commercial vessels as it does not require frequent refuelling and is commercially attractive in the OPEX in the long term. The comparisons for AFs showed that the LNG performs better in most aspects except in terms of GHG emissions, where ammonia and hydrogen are the best options. The cost of ammonia and hydrogen is however too high compared to their AF counterparts.

The impacts of adopting sustainable propulsion systems in ships in achieving the UN Sustainable Development Goals were presented. Three UN SDGs were targeted, i.e., SDG 7: Ensure access to affordable, reliable, sustainable and modern energy for all , SDG 9: Build resilient infrastructure, promote sustainable industrialisation an d foster innovation and SDG 13: Take urgent action to combat climate change and its impact. For SDG 7, it was demonstrated that the cost for LNG and hybrid propulsion systems between RE/AF with diesel engines could be attractive to make such technologies feasible for adoption. Sustainable energy propulsion, in particular, LNG fuel has pushed for new infrastructure to the maritime green transition, and this has revolutionised the supply chain to ensure sufficient, sustainable and affordable AF for the maritime industry in line with SDG9. Last but not least, the RE and AF have a direct impact towards achieving SDG 13 in reducing carbon and GHG emissions, thereby playing an important role in mitigating the impact of climate change.

The IMO has created an SDGs Strategy, which calls for the strengthening of partnerships in the implementation of the SDGs. This has seen a surge in collaboration between various stakeholders such as academia, industries, government agencies and classification societies in research and technology on RE and AF. Government agencies have taken steps to support member states in implementing the SDGs in the maritime industry, with a trend of increasing government spending on energy research since 2016. E.g., the Maritime SDG Accelerator under the Danish Maritime Business Association and UN Development Program (UNDP) was introduced to enable the acceleration of sustainable innovation and business development delivering on the SDG targets. The Maritime Singapore Decarbonisation Blueprint has set a goal for all domestic harbour craft in the Singapore Sea to operate on low-carbon energy solutions by 2030 and to be fully powered by electric propulsion and net zero fuels by 2050, aligning with Singapore's commitments under the UN SDGs. The decarbonisation of the maritime industry is an ongoing effort and the current initiatives undertaken by various stakeholders in adopting RE and AF in achieving the UN SDGS are encouraging and promising. The continuous concerted effort from the stakeholders with the aim to achieve UN SGDs will ensure a more sustainable future free of poverty and all people enjoy peace and prosperity.

Abbreviations

Alternative fuel

Boil-off gas

Capital expenses

Carbon dioxide

Direct current

Emission control areas

Energy efficiency operational indicator

Exhaust gas cleaning systems

Greenhouse gas

Heavy fuel oil

Internal combustion engine

International Maritime Organisation

Liquified natural gas

Nationally determined contributions

Nitrogen oxides

Operational expenses

Photovoltaic

Polymer electrolyte membrane

• Renewable energy

Ship energy efficiency management plan

Solid oxide fuel cells

Steam methane reforming

Sulphur oxides

Sustainable Development Goals

Tank to propeller

International Convention for the Prevention of Pollution from Ships

United Nations

United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change

Wind-assisted propulsion system

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Acknowledgement

The authors would like to thank Miss Kesha Martiny D/O Yagasundaram for compilation of data.

This research was funded by MOE, Grant Number R-MOE-E103-F010.

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Tay, Z.Y., Konovessis, D. Sustainable energy propulsion system for sea transport to achieve United Nations sustainable development goals: a review. Discov Sustain 4 , 20 (2023). https://doi.org/10.1007/s43621-023-00132-y

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What are the practical considerations for the design and installation of a solar power system on your sailboat?

The practical aspects of your solar panel system will be governed by the design and size of your sailboat, your overall project budget (% DIY project) and how you currently use your sailboat versus your future plans for your boat. The intent of this article is not to design or size your solar system, but to offer some real-world practical guides and considerations. You may have other sources of power from an auxiliary engine alternator or a separate diesel generator, but ideally you will want to optimize your solar power system generation when possible.

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Regenerative Electric Propulsion

Imagine a sailing vessel meeting energy needs through regenerative power..

By combining technologies from the 19th and 21st centuries—skipping over the petroleum era—Matthew Turner will become a unique teaching tool that can inspire appreciation for past boat building designs while utilizing innovative technology solutions to construct a truly green sailing ship.

The basic regenerative electric propulsion concept is simple. Instead of diesel engines, the ship is propelled by AC electric motors directly connected to the propeller shafts and drawing energy from large battery banks. When the ship is sailing, the energy of the passing water causes the propellers to rotate, which, in turn, causes the electric motors to become generators that re-charge the batteries onboard. Significant electrical energy is created as sailing speeds increase.

New advances in propellers, electric propulsion/regeneration motors, battery technologies and electronic controllers make this possible and are available today.

Matthew Turner can, in fact, operate on a carbon-neutral basis. Energy to run our ship will come from regenerative power under sail, which can be fueled with bio-fuel, and dockside charging from solar panels and wind generators. The dockside solar will be facilitated by the US Army Corps of Engineers at their Bay Model facility, which has recently been outfitted with a rooftop solar array that generates 540 kW/h.

Day-to-day operations are designed to minimize energy and water use with a waste management system that will repurpose, recycle and reduce waste. By using LED lighting, induction cooking and low energy navigation and appliances, the Matthew Turner will use less than 50kWh per day. The vessel can produce enough clean energy in a day of sailing to sustain the vessel’s needs.

HybriGen Benefits:

• Power is delivered on-demand to support propulsion or auxiliary power, or both simultaneously
• Variable speed genset and lithium-ion battery banks eliminate under-loading of the engine and wasted fuel
• Reduced operating time of diesel generators also allows for reduced maintenance
• Electric traction motors and batteries allow for completely silent and emission-free cruising
• Flexible, tablet-based diagnostics and control system allows for powerful, yet easy-to-use system operations and monitoring
• Isolated propulsion system in each demihull provides complete redundancy

Read more about BAE’s HybriGen Power and Propulsion here

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The Silent Revolution: Rise of Electric Boats

The excitement surrounding electric cars is only matched by that of electric boats. Predictions show the market exploding from $3.3 billion USD to $19 billion USD between 2023 and 2032 – a staggering growth that will change the way we experience the open seas.

With environmental damage at an all-time high, this eco-friendly solution provides us with an opportunity to explore nature without compromising its sanctity.

Fuel the Rise of Zero-emission Boats

The consumer demand for sustainable energy has sparked spectacular growth in the electric boating market. Boat builders, eager to meet this new demand, are engineering a range of boats that are cleaner, safer and offer powerful performance. Each boat is powered by long-lasting batteries, guaranteeing more time spent on the water.

Although electric boats currently occupy only 2% of the total market, they are expected to grow exponentially over the coming years. Even faster than the adoption of electric vehicles. This movement toward sustainability in boating is soon going to power its way into full throttle.

The Environmental Case for Electric-powered Boats

Pollution is a growing issue that we must confront if we are to protect the world around us. Thankfully, electric boats offer a cleaner energy solution that has significantly reduced the impact of traditional fuel on our environment.

Electric boats produce no direct emissions during use, thus drastically reducing air and water contamination from volatile organic compounds, carbon dioxide, hydrocarbon, and nitrogen oxides caused by diesel and gas-powered outboard motors.

Cars contain catalytic converters and exhaust recirculating systems that help reduce the amount of pollutants released into the air–but regrettably, boats do not enjoy this same luxury. Gas and diesel outboards emit hazardous levels of hydrocarbon and nitrogen oxide gases that can be hazardous to both health and nature.

Fortunately, with the advent of electric boats, our seas are slowly being restored to their natural beauty.

Benefit from Sustainable-forward Boats

The motors of electric boats are powered by batteries, similar to electric vehicles. With a single charge of the batteries, you can embark on a journey into unknown seas!

Discovering the wonders beneath the waves with an electric boat has many advantages. Here are just some of the features that make them such a desirable option:  their eco-friendly design, their immense power, and their incredibly quiet operation.

 So, harness the power of electricity and take advantages of its sustainability benefits:

Hush Over the Waves

Imagine gliding on the water’s surface, the only sound being the lapping of waves against your hull. Electric boats offer this serene experience, a stark contrast to the cacophony of traditional gas and diesel engines. These modern marvels of the sea allow for conversation and communion with nature without the roar and rumble of an outboard motor.

As you traverse the watery expanse, the tranquility will transform your boating experience, making it a symphony of peacefulness where every word shared with your companions becomes a treasure.

A Breath of Fresh Air

Repeatedly, the narrative of our times calls for cleaner, greener choices, and electric boats answer that call with silent vigor. Their operation is a gentle whisper on the wind, a promise of blue skies and clear waters.

By embracing electric, you become a guardian of the deep, a protector of the aquatic ballet below, ensuring that marine life continues to flourish. The reduction in emissions is not just a technical benefit–it’s a pledge to future generations, a commitment to the purity of our waterways.

Simplicity on the Seas

The joy of boating is in the journey, not the laborious upkeep. Electric boats offer a respite from the toils of maintenance. With fewer moving parts and a heart that hums with clean energy, these boats are the epitome of ‘plug and play’ on the open water.

Gone are the days of oil changes, filter swaps, and the fear of mechanical failures at sea. Electric motors present a reliable and straightforward solution, allowing boaters to cast off their cares with the dock lines and simply enjoy the voyage.

Final Thoughts

Electric boats demonstrate the potential to convert transportation into something sustainable. As boat batteries and engines continue to advance and evolve, these boats’ capabilities are immense and will have a huge positive impact on the environment.

When researching electric boats, one of your concerns might be the cost of ownership. Since the introduction of electric boats, different options are available at varying price points, so you should be able to find one that fits in your budget.

Apart from the initial purchase, you’ll usually find that maintenance and operating costs can be lower with an electric boat since there’s no need to buy fuel.

Electric boats offer numerous advantages such as recreation, sustainability, and technology without having to sacrifice performance, comfort, or luxury.

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--> Produce electricity on cruising sailboat

Electricity generation solutions.

Several technological solutions exist to produce electricity on sailboats. Each of them have their own characteristics, advantages and limitations.

The fuel power generator

This solution which is the oldest one uses fossil fuels and is not renewable , posing problems for the environment, flammable ,  pollution,  olfactory nuisances , a high cumbersome and important weight .

Renewable energy solutions

Hydrogenerator.

The hydrogenerator  produces electricity during the navigation , it transforms water flow energy into electricity thanks to an alternator. This energy is renewable (boat speed created by the wind).

Hydrogenerators are very effective to reload batteries during the sail navigation. Electricity can be produce with a high and predictable production , with a reduced cumbersome . 

This solution can cause a drag during the navigation and does not work normally during anchorage.

The solar pannel

Solar panels efficiency are degraded when they are installed on sailboats because their orientation and inclination are not optimal . In addition, it is mandatory to have sun and they are very sensitive to shadowing , even partial. They are bulky and need some addition equipments for their installation.  Their electrical production can maintain the float voltage of batteries.

The solar panels are however a good complement with another solution to produce electricity.

The wind generator

This solution is one of the oldest one and allows a production during anchorage . Some limitations to take into account:  complementary bulky and expensive elements are nedded to fix it. The noise and vibration can be discomfortable . In addition, the wind generator does not produces during wind down because it works only with apparent wind .

  The fuel cell

A fuel cell produces electricity thanks to a chemical reaction (hydrogen oxidation).

This technology can be a solution for the future to produce electricity, especially on sailboat, but today the price is still very expensive, that's a hurdle for its development.

Storage of generated electricity

Batteries are required to store the electrical energy received from the generator(s) in order to dispatch it depending on electrical devices demand. The batteries provide a real-time and on-demand reply to your boat electrical requirements.

There are several type of battery technology. The main ones are described below.

• Open lead acide batteries, the most common and oldest technology for cruising sailboat. The electrolyte fluid level has to be checked on a regular basis.
• Sealed lead (or lead-calcium) batteries, they require less maintenance due to the fact that no liquid level check is nedded. The chemical reaction ensures battery operation for the lifetime indicated by the manufacturer.
• AGM and gel batteries. The liquid electrolyte is replaced by a gelled solution, there is no risk of leakage or liquid level issue, the performances are higher and the liftetime is better. But this type of batteries are heavier and more expensive.
• Lithium-ion batteries. This technology leads to less bulky and lighter weight products, with improved storage capability and more charge and discharge cycles. The major constraint to their development is a high selling price.
• The energetic balance and the electric needs of sailboat
• Produce electricity on cruising sailboat
• Electrical production solutions by type of navigation

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What type of energy transformation does a sailboat have?

A sailboat uses energy from the wind. I don't think this is really an energy transformation; movement energy from the wind is converted into boat movement.

A sailboat converts the kinetic energy of wind into mechanical energy to propel the boat forward. This is an example of transforming energy from one form to another without storing it.

Ye sit does

Add your answer:

What type of energy is present in moving sailboat?

The type of energy present in a moving sailboat is kinetic energy, which is the energy of motion. It is generated as the wind pushes against the sails, propelling the boat forward.

What type of energy transformation does a radio signal have?

A radio signal is a form of electromagnetic energy. The energy transformation involves converting electrical energy into electromagnetic waves that carry information through the air to be received by a radio antenna.

What type of energy transformation of an electric fan?

Electric energy to kitenic energy

What type of energy transformation is a kerosene lantern?

A kerosene lantern involves the transformation of chemical energy stored in kerosene into light and heat energy through combustion.

What type of energy transformation does a windmill have?

A windmill undergoes a transformation of energy from kinetic energy in the wind to mechanical energy in the motion of its blades. This mechanical energy is then converted into electrical energy through a generator connected to the windmill.

What type of energy transformation is Niagara falls?

potential energy

What type of energy transformation performs muscles?

It is chemical to kinetic energy.

What is the type of energy transformation that occurs in the microwave?

electical energy is transform to heat energy

What type of transformation is Niagara fall?

What type of energy transformation do maracas have.

The autobots are unable to answer this question.

What type of energy transformation do batteries use?

Electrical to chemical and chemical to electrical energy.

Is KE turning into electrical energy called a transformation of energy?

Yes, when kinetic energy is converted into electrical energy, it is considered a transformation of energy. This process typically occurs in devices like generators, where mechanical energy is used to turn a turbine or rotor, which then generates electricity through electromagnetic induction.

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Inside The Ambitious Plan To Compete With Russia On Nuclear Energy Again

Senior Reporter, HuffPost

Nuclear plants are cheap to operate, last decades longer than other power sources, and generate unrivaled volumes of zero-carbon electricity rain or shine on relatively tiny slivers of land. Yet despite growing demand, few investors are willing to take a risk on new atomic energy stations as they’re expensive and difficult to build. The United States hasn’t built more than two from scratch in decades, and similar projects in Europe have gone billions of dollars over budget and taken years to complete.

Of the nearly five dozen reactors under construction worldwide, the majority are funded by the Chinese or Russian governments, with the Kremlin financing virtually every debut project underway in countries like Bangladesh, Egypt and Turkey. Unlike buying Russian gas or Chinese-made solar panels, a nuclear power station is not a one-off purchase. Given the maintenance and fuel these plants require, the relationships forged between the buyer and the authoritarian exporter are expected to last as long as a century between construction, a typical lifetime of operation and final decommissioning.

A new campaign launched this week aims to rally support behind a potential alternative, HuffPost has learned: a global bank backed by the world’s biggest nuclear-powered democracies and dedicated to building nuclear power plants around the world.

The idea for the International Bank for Nuclear Infrastructure has been circulating for a few years. But a global team of 15 lawyers, financiers and regulatory experts officially incorporated a new Washington, D.C.-headquartered nonprofit in hopes of persuading Congress to put up to $7 billion toward getting the new lender off the ground. It’s the first of what the organization envisions as a globe-spanning network of nonprofits promoting IBNI.

With a goal of raising an initial $25 billion to start the bank, IBNI would ― at least for now ― cut out Russia and China in favor of establishing a new multilateral institution akin to the World Bank or the International Monetary Fund with atomic allies such as Canada, France, the United Kingdom, Japan, South Korea and the United Arab Emirates. IBNI could then provide financing for projects in would-be newcomer nations like Ghana, Indonesia or the Philippines, reducing the risk for other lenders and lowering the cost of choosing American, European or South Korean technology over cheaper Russian exports.

“It will be a playing field leveler in the international competition for nuclear technology,” said Daniel Dean, the Vienna-based American investment banker who serves as the new nonprofit’s chief executive. “This bank will enable these countries and stakeholders to select technology independent of which country is providing a full financing package.”

Dean stressed that IBNI is “geopolitically neutral,” and said that while present global tensions make forming a new group with Russia and China untenable, the organization would not be fundamentally designed to exclude anyone.

While cost estimates vary, the price of Russian reactors is typically less than half of what nuclear plants built by Americans or Europeans cost, and about 40% cheaper than those constructed by South Korea, currently the leading atomic exporter in the democratic world.

China, which is building more reactors at home than any other country, is developing novel reactor designs and is widely expected to begin exporting its technology in the next decade. In the meantime, Russia is the main game in town. The state-owned Rosatom offers a one-stop-shop for technology, construction, maintenance, fuel and financing, making Moscow the vendor of choice for most countries building their first nuclear power stations.

The U.S., by contrast, struggled until earlier this year to complete the only two new American reactors started this century, and ― with a notable exception ― depends on a privatized network of companies to build, run, fuel and finance its own atomic fleet.

In practice, that model has yielded limited progress in recent years. Centrus Energy, the U.S. uranium enricher spun out from federal government ownership in the late 1990s, last year started fabricating a special type of nuclear fuel over which Russia has a monopoly, but still can’t produce enough to keep the American fleet going and needed a special exemption to continue importing Russian fuel. Terra Power, the Bill Gates-backed developer of next-generation reactors, broke ground just last month on what could be the first of a new kind of technology anywhere in the democratic world, the likes of which China not only completed but hooked up to its grid last December.

The federally owned Export-Import Bank of the U.S. has put up $3 billion to fund construction of Poland’s first nuclear power plant with American reactors, a project Warsaw has pitched as a strategy to cement its alliance with Washington. Even there, however, Poland wanted U.S. companies to buy equity stakes in the station to help make the project look less risky — a demand at which American firms have so far balked .

“The traditional financing mechanisms are not even close to ready to help support nuclear,” said Todd Moss, a former assistant U.S. Secretary of State who now runs the think tank Energy for Growth Hub, which researches ways to build climate-resilient energy systems in developing countries. “Something like IBNI is an obvious solution to fill that financing gap.”

The picture hasn’t been much rosier in Europe, where flagship French and British plans for new reactors at home and elsewhere on the continent have cost billions more than initially planned and taken years longer. South Korea, which generates much of its electricity from atomic fission, has fared better, successfully building the United Arab Emirates’ first nuclear plant last year and winning a $17 billion contract last month to construct a new plant in Czechia. But the previous government in Seoul tried to destroy the domestic nuclear industry, and a country the size of South Korea can only do so much overseas to meet the goal the Biden administration set at last year’s United Nations climate summit to triple global atomic energy output by 2050.

Other international lenders could help close the financing gap on nuclear reactors. The World Bank, for example, has refused to fund nuclear projects since a single investment in Italy’s now-defunct atomic sector in 1959. Pressure is now mounting on the World Bank to lift its ban on nuclear plants. In February, the U.S. House of Representatives proposed legislation earlier this year to push the World Bank and other regional lenders to commit as much as $100 billion in annual financing for nuclear projects.

Of the 189 countries that act as shareholders in the World Bank, just eight openly oppose nuclear power ― including Germany, Austria and Luxembourg ― with another 100 either operating reactors or publicly supporting the technology.

“It’s a tyranny of the anti-nuclear minority,” Moss said. “The World Bank is one of the most important financiers of infrastructure, but it’s probably the most important adviser to their borrowing countries on a whole set of infrastructure-planning issues.”

Right now, countries like the Philippines or Ghana are making decisions about their future energy mix, weighing whether nuclear makes sense, and what types of nuclear facilities make sense and where, he said.

“The World Bank is completely absent from those conversations, where the World Bank is involved in every nook and cranny of what these governments are doing,” Moss said. “That strikes me as willful ignorance. It’s not doing the World Bank or their borrowing clients any good by acting ignorant.”

As a first step, he said, the World Bank should hire internal experts to help consult its borrowers on nuclear power.

That may do little to dampen demand for another lender like IBNI.

The trouble is that some Western lending institutions, including the World Bank, are designed to fund projects primarily in developing countries, meaning that nuclear projects in North America, Europe or East Asia might not qualify for financing.

“Even if the World Bank changes its policy tomorrow, you’re going to be competing against a lot of other projects that are easier to finance,” said Elina Teplinsky, an attorney at the Washington, D.C.-based law firm Pillsbury Winthrop Shaw Pittman who handles international nuclear deals and is working on the side to launch IBNI. “If you have a choice between financing wind and solar or financing nuclear, even if your politics are for financing nuclear, you’re going to go with financing new wind and solar.”

“IBNI’s entire focus would be to scale nuclear, so it would be able to come in upfront and ... move on lots of different projects, with the idea that the entire purpose of this financing is to scale hundreds of gigawatts of nuclear power.” - Elina Teplinsky, nuclear lawyer at Pillsbury Winthrop Shaw Pittman

By targeting IBNI specifically at nuclear projects, the bank would be prepared to deal with issues and timelines specific to fission energy.

“IBNI’s entire focus would be to scale nuclear, so it would be able to come in upfront and would be able to move on lots of different projects,” Teplinsky said, “with the idea that the entire purpose of this financing is to scale hundreds of gigawatts of nuclear power instead of looking at projects just on a case by case basis.”

IBNI would also help set international financing standards for rating the value of nuclear investments, Dean said, helping to open more funding from so-called ESG investors concerned over the environmental and social impact of dealmaking.

If IBNI already existed, convincing Congress to give it more money might not be such a tall task. But critics of the proposal say it’s hard enough to get political support for funding entirely U.S.-owned institutions like the Ex-Im Bank that are dedicated to financing projects for American exports overseas. For much of the past decade, conservative think tanks and pundits have argued in favor of defunding the Ex-Im Bank entirely, and experts expect the fight to begin anew next year when Congress begins debating reauthorizing the bank before its charter runs out at the end of 2026.

Putting up more funding for a new institution that might end up financing French or South Korean technology on projects where a U.S. company loses the bid would be a tough sell in Washington, according to a high-ranking source involved in reauthorizing the Ex-Im Bank who requested anonymity to speak candidly on a sensitive topic. The source worried IBNI might be an “unnecessary distraction” from more realistic goals, like reforming the World Bank.

But Dean said his meetings with officials from the Ex-Im Bank, the U.S. Treasury and Congress have so far been positive, and noted the support for nuclear energy across the American political spectrum. Discussions with lawmakers and counterpart agencies in Canada, Europe and Asia went similarly well, he said.

The next step, he said, will be promoting IBNI in November at the back-to-back United Nations climate summit in Azerbaijan and the G20 conference in Brazil.

“The simple answer is that IBNI is the best use of every dollar of public money that can be devoted to scaling nuclear,” he said. “We don’t want to compete with what the U.S. Ex-Im Bank is doing, what the Canadians are doing, what the French are doing ... At the end of the day, for every dollar of tax money that’s provided by these countries, IBNI will provide the most bang for the buck.”

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More in politics.

Solar energy breakthrough could reduce need for solar farms

Scientists at Oxford University Physics Department have developed a revolutionary approach which could generate increasing amounts of solar electricity without the need for silicon-based solar panels. Instead, their innovation works by coating a new power-generating material onto the surfaces of everyday objects such as rucksacks, cars, and mobile phones.

This ultra-thin material, using this so-called multi-junction approach, has now been independently certified to deliver over 27% energy efficiency, for the first time matching the performance of traditional, single-layer, energy-generating materials known as silicon photovoltaics. Japan’s National Institute of Advanced Industrial Science and Technology (AIST), gave its certification prior to publication of the researchers’ scientific study later this year.

‘During just five years experimenting with our stacking or multi-junction approach we have raised power conversion efficiency from around 6% to over 27%, close to the limits of what single-layer photovoltaics can achieve today,’ said Dr Shuaifeng Hu , Post Doctoral Fellow at Oxford University Physics. ‘We believe that, over time, this approach could enable the photovoltaic devices to achieve far greater efficiencies, exceeding 45%.’

This compares with around 22% energy efficiency from solar panels today (meaning they convert around 22% of the energy in sunlight), but the versatility of the new ultra-thin and flexible material is also key. At just over one micron thick, it is almost 150 times thinner than a silicon wafer. Unlike existing photovoltaics, generally applied to silicon panels, this can be applied to almost any surface.

‘By using new materials which can be applied as a coating, we’ve shown we can replicate and out-perform silicon whilst also gaining flexibility. This is important because it promises more solar power without the need for so many silicon-based panels or specially-built solar farms,’ said Dr Junke Wang , Marie Skłodowska Curie Actions Postdoc Fellow at Oxford University Physics.

The latest innovations in solar materials and techniques demonstrated in our labs could become a platform for a new industry, manufacturing materials to generate solar energy more sustainably and cheaply by using existing buildings, vehicles, and objects. Henry Snaith , Professor of Renewable Energy, Oxford University Physics Department.

The researchers believe their approach will continue to reduce the cost of solar and also make it the most sustainable form of renewable energy. Since 2010, the global average cost of solar electricity has fallen by almost 90%, making it almost a third cheaper than that generated from fossil fuels. Innovations promise additional cost savings as new materials, like thin-film perovskite, reduce the need for silicon panels and purpose-built solar farms.

‘We can envisage perovskite coatings being applied to broader types of surface to generate cheap solar power, such as the roof of cars and buildings and even the backs of mobile phones. If more solar energy can be generated in this way, we can foresee less need in the longer term to use silicon panels or build more and more solar farms’ Dr Wang added.

The researchers are among 40 scientists working on photovoltaics led by Professor of Renewable Energy Henry Snaith at Oxford University Physics Department. Their pioneering work in photovoltaics and especially the use of thin-film perovskite began around a decade ago and benefits from a bespoke, robotic laboratory.

Oxford PV, a UK company spun out of Oxford University Physics in 2010 by co-founder and chief scientific officer Professor Henry Snaith to commercialise perovskite photovoltaics, recently started large-scale manufacturing of perovskite photovoltaics at its factory in Brandenburg-an-der-Havel, near Berlin, Germany. This is the world’s first volume manufacturing line for ‘perovskite-on-silicon’ tandem solar cells.

‘We originally looked at UK sites to start manufacturing but the government has yet to match the fiscal and commercial incentives on offer in other parts of Europe and the United States,’ Professor Snaith said. ‘Thus far the UK has thought about solar energy purely in terms of building new solar farms, but the real growth will come from commercialising innovations – we very much hope that the newly-created British Energy will direct its attention to this.’

‘Supplying these materials will be a fast-growth new industry in the global green economy and we have shown that the UK is innovating and leading the way scientifically. However, without new incentives and a better pathway to convert this innovation into manufacturing the UK will miss the opportunity to lead this new global industry,’ Professor Snaith added.

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New twist on synthesis technique promises sustainable manufacturing

James Tour's lab at Rice University has developed a new method known as flash-within-flash Joule heating (FWF) that could transform the synthesis of high-quality solid-state materials, offering a cleaner, faster and more sustainable manufacturing process. The findings were published in Nature Chemistry on Aug. 8.

Traditionally, synthesizing solid-state materials has been a time-consuming and energy-intensive process, often accompanied by the production of harmful byproducts. But FWF enables gram-scale production of diverse compounds in seconds while reducing energy, water consumption and greenhouse gas emissions by more than 50%, setting a new standard for sustainable manufacturing.

The innovative research builds on Tour's 2020 development of waste disposal and upcycling applications using flash Joule heating, a technique that passes a current through a moderately resistive material to quickly heat it to over 3,000 degrees Celsius (over 5,000 degrees Fahrenheit) and transform it into other substances.

"The key is that formerly we were flashing carbon and a few other compounds that could be conductive," said Tour, the T.T. and W.F. Chao Professor of Chemistry and professor of materials science and nanoengineering. "Now we can flash synthesize the rest of the periodic table. It is a big advance."

FWF's success lies in its ability to overcome the conductivity limitations of conventional flash Joule heating methods. The team -- including Ph.D. student Chi Hun "Will" Choi and corresponding author Yimo Han , assistant professor of chemistry, materials science and nanoengineering -- incorporated an outer flash heating vessel filled with metallurgical coke and a semiclosed inner reactor containing the target reagents. FWF generates intense heat of about 2,000 degrees Celsius, which rapidly converts the reagents into high-quality materials through heat conduction.

This novel approach allows for the synthesis of more than 20 unique, phase-selective materials with high purity and consistency, according to the study. FWF's versatility and scalability is ideal for the production of next-generation semiconductor materials such as molybdenum diselenide (MoSe2), tungsten diselenide and alpha phase indium selenide, which are notoriously difficult to synthesize using conventional techniques.

"Unlike traditional methods, FWF does not require the addition of conductive agents, reducing the formation of impurities and byproducts," Choi said.

This advancement creates new opportunities in electronics, catalysis, energy and fundamental research. It also offers a sustainable solution for manufacturing a wide range of materials. Moreover, FWF has the potential to revolutionize industries such as aerospace, where materials like FWF-made MoSe2 demonstrate superior performance as solid-state lubricants.

"FWF represents a transformative shift in material synthesis," Han said. "By providing a scalable and sustainable method for producing high-quality solid-state materials, it addresses barriers in manufacturing while paving the way for a cleaner and more efficient future."

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Story Source:

Materials provided by Rice University . Original written by Marcy de Luna. Note: Content may be edited for style and length.

Journal Reference :

• Chi Hun ‘William’ Choi, Jaeho Shin, Lucas Eddy, Victoria Granja, Kevin M. Wyss, Bárbara Damasceno, Hua Guo, Guanhui Gao, Yufeng Zhao, C. Fred Higgs, Yimo Han, James M. Tour. Flash-within-flash synthesis of gram-scale solid-state materials . Nature Chemistry , 2024; DOI: 10.1038/s41557-024-01598-7

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Scaling The Energy Transition Journey In The Oil, Gas, And Chemicals Sector: What It May Take To “Play Big”

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Achieving net zero by 2050 could require moving as much as four times faster than in previous major transformations and will likely necessitate local and global coordination. As noted in the recently published Deloitte US Road to Scale report , the objective entails overhauling existing infrastructure, including energy systems, resources, manufacturing, transport, and the built environment. The global energy transition is on a tight timeline, especially considering the complexity of the task, and that major transformations such as the Industrial Revolution—the transition from the basic telephone to a smartphone, and from the concept of computer intelligence to Generative AI —all took over 30 years to become globally pervasive.

With no time to waste, oil, gas and chemicals companies, along with other energy system participants, are contemplating how they can catalyze action to help ensure progression of the transition. These are some of the ways in which sector leaders could enable the massive systemic changes needed to accelerate the shift to clean energy:

• By tri-phasing scaling . This refers to making incremental, sequential progress that initiates at the asset level (e.g., a machine, process, or facility); progresses to the system level (e.g., a set of machines and processes or multiple facilities); and culminates at the ecosystem level (e.g., across processes, technologies, supply chain, vendors, and sectors).
• By facilitating acceleration . This implies deploying enablers such as technology, talent, finance, and innovative business models to help expedite the transition’s pace by offering vital support and momentum.
• By serving as transition architects . This refers to driving action among policymakers, other companies/organizations, and consumers who may play pivotal roles in shaping the trajectory of the transition, ultimately determining its outcomes.

Balancing reliability, affordability and sustainability

While sector leaders can follow these viable ways to catalyze action, the urgency of the energy transition has to be balanced across the three aspects of reliability, affordability and sustainability, without over-indexing on any of one of them, which could set the whole mission back. The affordability aspect has thus far been challenging. The energy industry as a whole has a demand issue, where many end-consumers will not, or simply cannot, pay more for low-carbon products. Similarly, industrial customers, which comprise the bulk of the business in the oil, gas, and chemicals industry, often find it challenging to make the business case for purchasing renewable fuels and feedstocks when hydrocarbon-based supplies cost substantially less. Policy enablement to date has largely focused on supply incentives but that still has not brought supply costs down to a level that competes with higher carbon products.

Resolving the demand conundrum

Weak demand and lack of clear return on investment can impede companies from progressing from the asset level to the system and then ecosystem levels in the tri-phased scaling model. Today, asset-level investments are prevalent, with many oil, gas, and chemicals companies applying marginal abatement cost curves to determine which projects they can invest in to reduce emissions from machines, processes, or facilities in a way that is reasonably economic. These investments may take the form of deploying solutions such as utilizing lower-carbon feedstocks to produce lower-carbon products or electrifying remote production sites that used to rely on diesel engines for transport or electricity generation. They may also involve technology enablement, with some companies piloting the use of artificial intelligence (AI) to help reduce emissions at the asset-level indirectly through greater process efficiency, or directly by capturing carbon or reducing methane leakage. However, few oil and gas companies to date have been able to substantially expand their efforts to the system or ecosystem level.

Although progress has been incremental thus far, the oil, gas, and chemicals sector, perhaps more than any other, is well-equipped to lead the way in solving the complex problems associated with making the immense, systemic changes required to reach net-zero by 2050. Scaling the energy transition is a focal point for leaders and policymakers across industries. Yet, “thinking big” doesn’t always come easily, unless you are accustomed to working that way in the course of your everyday business. Extracting and processing hydrocarbons and getting them to market efficiently requires enormous infrastructure investments, vast technical skills, and the ability to bring together multiple providers and governments to figure out mutually beneficial pathways to market. Thus, oil, gas and chemicals leaders are well-suited to drive the energy transition as they naturally think in terms of scale.

Considering a global carbon price

As the world tries to build a whole new energy system, it makes sense that the role of transition architects could be filled by those whose core competency is solving large, complex problems, often spanning borders and industries to do so. Yet, in order for oil, gas, and chemicals leaders, to effectively apply their skills in scaling the energy transition, the demand conundrum needs to be resolved. At present, the demand for low-carbon products is not sufficient to accelerate the clean energy transition at the pace required to meet global decarbonization targets. This reality has amplified calls for a global carbon price . A unified carbon scheme to which the major emitting nations agree could lower the cost, and thus bolster demand, for clean energy products and offer much-needed clarity into the return on investment of low-carbon investments. This, in turn, could enable oil, gas, and chemicals companies to “play big” in scaling the energy transition journey from assets to systems to ecosystems—ultimately integrating diverse systems and sectors into a cohesive low-carbon network.

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Perm Krai Capital of Culture

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“ Cultural Planning will help to ensure the Perm region will remain distinctive and unique” , Mr. Protasevich said. “It will mean planning ways to support and preserve our heritage, developing appealing opportunities for artists and musicians regardless of age, and generating education and employment. It will mean building a creative community with a buzz.”

“Some of the identified objectives of “Perm krai international:young journalists@school” project include facilitating greater communication and cooperation among young community and official organizations in Perm krai”, said the Vice-Minister of Perm krai.

“Perm Krai International: young journalistes@school”

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The international children festival of theatre arts “Long Break”

What is the international child festival of theatre arts “Long Break”? It is a real holiday for young spectators and their parents. The international child festival of theatre arts “Long Break” will be hold from the 30th of April to the 5th of May. It will be in Perm and Lysva. It will be hold under the aegis of the Ministry of Culture of the Russian Federation and the Ministry of Culture, Youth Politics and Mass Communications of Perm Krai. The program of the festival is prepared by Russian and foreign experts of child theatre. There are the most interesting for children events of the world arts. The “Long Break” familiarizes children with actual artists. It is the platform where people communicate with people using the language of modern arts which is understandable for a new generation.

The festival “The White Nights in Perm”

• The participants of the festival of land art “Ural Myths” will create art objects using natural materials. The objects will have the same mythological idea.
• During the festival of bears “MedveDay” the masters Teddy-makers will tell gripping stories about a symbol of the city. They will organize some exhibitions of teddy bears and they will give master classes.

• The exhibition “Mammoth’s track” will gather mammoths from different corners of Russia on Perm’s territory. There will be even a famous mammoth Dima.
• And at last the international festival of street arts «Open sky» will represent the various program: carnival processions, a 5-day master class «Mask Art», street shows and performances, performances of Russian and foreign street theatres.

The IX International festival “Heavenly Fair of Ural”

From the 26th to the 3rd of July the IX International festival “Heavenly Fair of Ural” takes place in Kungur. There will be a fight for the I Privolzhski Federal Disctrict Cup for aerostatics and the VII Perm Krai Open Cup for aerostatics.This year Kungur won’t hold rating competitions which results are taking into general account of the pilots. They counted on creating entertainment activities “Air battles over Kungur”. There will be the representatives of sub-units of ultralight aviation, detachment of parachute troops and water means. All the battles will take place straight over the city. And natives will take part in the festival too.According to initial data 15 aeronauts and about 50 ultralight aviation pilots expressed willingness to take part at the festival. And a dirigible pilot confirmed his participation.Ultralight aviation pilots will take part in the “Air games” within the festival. As last year a campsite of ultralight aviation will base in an area near a village Milniki.

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Seatrium and Nanyang Technological University Launch New Energy Laboratory and Forge Partnership for Workforce Transformation

Singapore - August 13, 2024 —

Seatrium Limited (Seatrium or the Group) and Nanyang Technological University, Singapore (NTU Singapore) today officially signed an addendum and training Memorandum of Understanding (MoU) during the renaming ceremony of the former Sembcorp Marine Lab, reaffirming both parties’ commitment to advancing green and sustainable energy solutions in the Offshore and Marine (O&M) sector. The newly named Seatrium New Energy Laboratory will continue to drive innovation, focusing on addressing challenges related to new energies, offshore renewables, marine decarbonisation, and digitalisation within the Offshore & Marine (O&M) industry.

The areas of research under the addendum include:

a. Ammonia Release Mitigation and Capture System The feasibility of using ammonia for O&M applications requires in-depth evaluation of safety considerations and mitigating measures. The research will pivot towards safe containment and treatment of purged ammonia from the system during the vessel / plant’s normal operation including loading/unloading of ammonia for safe management of the toxic gas before releasing to the atmosphere. This will result in development of a compact, easy-to-use, and safe ammonia capture system, ensuring that the final discharge treatment method meets or exceeds regulatory requirements.

b. MOF-based Post-Combustion Carbon Capture System Post-combustion carbon capture is a vital tool for the O&M industry to meet the International Maritime Organisation’s (IMO) revised Greenhouse Gases (GHG) emission reduction targets. The research will focus on innovative carbon capture technology using metal-organic frameworks (MOFs) that aims to reduce energy consumption by utilising waste heat of the engine for desorption of MOF and achieving a smaller footprint as compared to industry prevalent amine-based carbon capture systems. This will enable adoption of MOF based CCS onboard ships where available power and space for retrofits is limited.

c. Digitalisation Enhancing Marine Electrification A data-driven digital twin model offers a clear view of the changing energy demands associated with marine electrification. Insights from this model will help identify suitable floating energy solutions to facilitate decarbonisation efforts along nearshore and coastal areas. This research emphasises a data-driven approach to determine the necessary floating energy infrastructure needed to accommodate the increasing energy demand. The developed model will be integrated into a digital platform that optimises the lifecycle of energy solutions and enables efficient energy distribution.

In collaboration with the Seatrium New Energy Lab @ NTU, both parties are committed to promote continuous learning and workforce development in Seatrium. This initiative will enhance skill sets through various courses offered by PaCE@NTU, including the Virtual Learning Series (VLS), Continuing Education & Training (CET) and SkillsFuture-related courses, with the goal of creating sustainable offshore energy solutions in the industry. Key curriculum areas include Artificial Intelligence, decarbonisation, renewable energy, marine thermal management, robotics, and energy efficiency technologies.

Mr Chris Ong, CEO of Seatrium, said: “Our partnership with Nanyang Technological University, Singapore underscores our commitment to advancing eco-friendly energy solutions in the O&M sector. The Seatrium New Energy Laboratory will serve as a testbed for innovative solutions for the industry, allowing aspiring researchers to test their hypotheses to develop conceptual ideas into commercially viable solutions for the market. Our collaboration with PaCE@NTU will also empower our workforce with essential skills for a sustainable future. Together, we are not just envisioning a greener tomorrow, we are actively building it.”

Professor Ho Teck Hua, President and Distinguished University Professor, NTU, said: “The Seatrium New Energy Laboratory plays a key role in helping the maritime and offshore industry address global environmental challenges, by supporting decarbonisation and innovating more sustainable models of operation. As a university known for expertise in artificial intelligence and sustainability, we are also proud to be the education partner of choice for Seatrium. We will provide customised courses to equip maritime specialists with the skills needed to tackle the challenges that lie ahead.”

Photo of Addendum Signing at the renaming ceremony of Seatrium New Energy Lab @ NTU (From left to right : Mr Chris Ong, CEO (Seatrium); Prof Ho Teck Hua, President (NTU))

Photo of Learning MoU Signing Ceremony (From left to right: Prof Duan Fei, Mr Aziz Merchant, Prof Yeong Wai Yee, Mr Chris Ong, Prof Ho Teck Hua, Mr Adrian Teng, Prof Tan Yap Peng, Mr Lim Howe Run, Ms See E’Jin)

About Seatrium Limited:

Seatrium Limited provides innovative engineering solutions to the global offshore, marine and energy industries. Headquartered in Singapore, the Group has over 60 years of track record in the design and construction of rigs, floaters, offshore platforms and specialised vessels, as well as in the repair, upgrading and conversion of different ship types.

The Group’s key business segments include Oil & Gas Newbuilds and Conversions, Offshore Renewables, Repairs & Upgrades, and New Energies, with a growing focus on sustainable solutions to advance the global energy transition and maritime decarbonisation.

As a premier global player offering offshore renewables, new energies and cleaner offshore & marine solutions, Seatrium is committed to delivering high standards of safety, quality and performance to its customers which include major energy companies, vessel owners and operators, shipping companies, and cruise and ferry operators.

Seatrium operates shipyards, engineering & technology centres and facilities in Singapore, Brazil, China, India, Indonesia, Japan, Malaysia, the Philippines, Norway, the United Arab Emirates, the United Kingdom and the United States. 

Discover more at www.seatrium.com .

For more information, please contact:

Ms Judy Tan Head, Investor Relations & Corporate Communications Tel No: +65 68030254 Email: [email protected]

Ms Clarissa Ho Senior Manager, Investor Relations & Corporate Communications Tel No: +65 68030276 Email: [email protected]

Release ID: 89138241

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Yale Climate Connections

Solar developer says renewable energy could transform Native communities

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When the Prairie Island Indian Community in Minnesota installed a big solar farm, the whole tribe had the opportunity to learn about the technology.

Robert Blake of the Red Lake Nation owns Solar Bear , a solar installation company. As part of the Prairie Island project , his company trained people to work on the crew.

Blake: “The all-Native crew that installed these solar panels installed 763 solar panels in one day. … I mean, it’s remarkable!”

But it was not only the installers who learned about solar. His company helped run a six-week course about solar energy that was open to all community members.

And as part of a summer school program, young tribal members learned about renewable energy and built solar ovens.

Blake: “We thought to ourselves, well, maybe there’s some younger folks, right, that maybe they’re 14, maybe they’re 13, but they want to learn.”

Blake says renewable energy has the potential to transform Native communities – creating jobs, building wealth, and improving the environment.

Blake: “This is another burgeoning industry that is happening in tribal country. This is another economic driver of our communities.”

So he says it’s important to help all tribal members see the potential and get excited about solar energy.

Reporting credit: Sarah Kennedy / ChavoBart Digital Media

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